Democracy and participation Flashcards
democracy, the franchise, rights, pressure groups
What is direct democracy?
People are engaged directly in political decision-making, and make decisions for themselves, Usually decisions on specific and limited issues.
How is direct democracy used in the UK?
Referendums e.g. Brexit referendum 2016
What is representative democracy?
People vote for someone to engage in political decision-making on their behalf.
How is representative democracy used in the UK?
MPs elected in each constituency to serve in UK parliament. Local councillors. Scottish, Welsh and Northern Irish representatives elected to serve in devolved bodies. e.g. general election 2019 Conservative party given the mandate to govern due to majority of seats won.
Similarities between direct and representative democracy
-engaging the population in political decision-making
-encouraging political education
-recognition of the people as the main source of political power
-balance of competing interests within a country
Advantages of direct democracy
-everyone within the franchise has their voice directly heard
-encourages political participation and education
-decisions reached have greater legitimacy
-solving controversial issues
Disadvantages of direct democracy
-difficult to use frequently with millions of citizens on many decisions
-removes accountability of politicians
-tyranny of the majority as the minority are unlikely to be heard
-referendums on complex issues which not all citizens have time to understand
Advantages of representative democracy
-electing representatives works
-representatives can be held to account for decisions, so poor representatives can be replaced
-avoiding tyranny of the majority
-elected representatives have time to understand complex issues before making decisions
Disadvantages of representative democracy
-not all constituents’ voices are heard
-encourage political apathy as the representative takes responsibility
-decisions can lack legitimacy when made by representatives elected years ago
What is legitimacy?
The rightful exercise of political power, usually by a government by winning a free and fair election
What is tyranny of the majority?
Situation where the will of the majority of the people in a country is used to make decisions, ignoring minority needs.
What is liberal democracy?
Free, fair and frequent elections. Free media. Tolerance of views. Protection of rights. Limited government
What is pluralist democracy?
Tolerance of views. Many locations of political power. Competing parties between which power can change hands.
What is elitist democracy?
Power concentrated to the hands of few. Political decision-making dominated by the small number of people, often wealthy and well-educated.
What concerns are there with UK democracy?
-falling voter engagement (2024 general election turnout 60%)
-extent of the franchise (citizens under 18 cannot vote)
-lack of engagement opportunity between elections
-representatives only held to account at elections
How to reform to increase voter turnout?
Compulsory voting or online voting. Increased turnout improves legitimacy. However, this would not improve political education as votes could be cast randomly=, without any knowledge. Concern for the security of online voting.
How to reform to extend the franchise?
Lower voting age to 16 to encourage political engagement of younger people and increase legitimacy. However, there are questions over the maturity of 16 year olds to vote.
How to reform to improve opportunities for political engagement?
Increased use of referendums or e-democracy such as petitions to encourage political participation of young people and increase legitimacy. However, this could undermine representative democracy and make representatives less accountable for their decisions.
How to reform for increasing accountability of representatives?
Improve the ability of constituents to use acts such as the Recall of MPs Act 2015 to improve the relationship between MPs and their constituency, and the effectiveness of representation.
What is the franchise?
The right to vote. The extent of the franchise is those with the right to vote (18 year olds in the UK)
The Reform Act 1832
Enfranchised middle-class men
The Reform Acts 1867 and 1884
Enfranchised working-class householders in boroughs and counties
The Ballot Act 1872
Made voting in secret compulsory
The Suffragists’ lobbying 1897
Lobbying of parliament to extend the franchise to women
The Suffragettes’ protests 1903-1914
Hunger strike, violent and destruction to extend the franchise to women
The Representation of the People Act 1918
All men over 21 and women over 30 with a property qualification could vote in general elections
Representation of the People Act 1928
Extension of the franchise to men and women aged over 21
Representation of the People Act 1969
Lowered voting age to 18
Scottish Independence referendum 2014
16 and 17 year olds allowed to vote
Votes at 16 in Scotland 2015
Scottish parliament legislated to lower voting age to 16 in Scottish local and parliamentary elections
How people participate in democracy in the UK
-voting (in local, national or general elections)
-standing in elections
-joining a political party (can shape policy direction)
-joining a pressure group/ political movement (social media allows involvement in issues relevant to them e.g. MeToo movement)
-signing e-petitions (petition with 10,000+ signatures will get a response from government, petition with 100,000+ may be debates in HOC)
evidence showing there is a participation crisis
- turnout since 2010 in general elections between 60-69%, meaning around 1/3 of UK voters are not taking part in elections
- only around 50% 18-24 year olds voted in general elections since 2010
- turnout at local elections are poor (2012 police and crime commissioner elections had 15.5% turnout)
- 1.5% of British electorate members of political parties in 2022
- numbers of people taking part in political protests with groups such as Extinction Rebellion are fewer than suggested on social media
- the lack of impact coming from petitions with millions of signatures has undermined this as a method of participation. In 2019, petition to cancel Brexit passed 6 million signatures
evidence showing there is not a participation crisis
- turnout in recent elections higher than previous elections in 2000s
- results in recent elections close, which could increase turnout (2010 coalition, 2015 small majority, 2017 minority government)
- calls for second referendums on Brexit and Scottish independence demonstrated the public demand to take part in this democracy
- social media allowed voters to mobilise quickly, as mass public participation can lead to the sacking of government ministers and government U-turns
- use of e-petitions gathered nearly 23 million unique signatures between 2015 and 2019 (around 35% of UK population)
- Reform UK party has around 200,000 members (Feb 2025) despite only having 40,000 members ahead of Farage’s leadership in 2024
what are pressure groups?
a group of likeminded individuals who seek to influence those in power on a specific issue
what is a sectional pressure group?
they represent a relatively narrow or specific section of society, often on a number of issues e.g. trade unions representing specific issues, but on all issues relevant to their profession.
what is a casual pressure group?
they represent a whole cross-section of society, but often on a single, or narrowly focused issue e.g. Liberty is a group defending rights in the UK but which anyone is welcome to join
what is an insider pressure group
they often have some link with government, giving them the ability to influence the government directly. This could be due to being policy experts, or holding an ideology that aligns with the current government e.g. both Johnson and Starmer gave keynote speeches at the Confederation of British Industry’s (CBI) annual conference
what is an outsider pressure group
they do not have any links to the government, and therefore have to seek alternative methods to gain influence. They may engage in high profile methods to gain public support e.g. Extinction Rebellion and Just Stop Oil carrying out protests such as gluing themselves to the M25 to cause disruption, and raising the profile of their groups and aims
what are think tanks
a group of experts on a particular policy area that produces research to try to influence the government, which may have a specific political leaning
what is a lobbyist
a person or company that is paid to try to influence those in power, particularly when legislation is being considered
example of a think tank
the Institute for Fiscal Studies:
- in May 2022 the group warned that the government would need to do more to help people with their energy bills, as bills were likely to be higher in 2023 than they were in 2022
example of lobbyists
the Hanbury Strategy Group:
- in late 2022, the group set up a dedicated unit to help their clients ‘engage with the Opposition and prepare for the prospect of a Labour government’
concerns with think tanks
- some have close ties to government, which could lead them to undue influence
- the development of policy by think tanks has removed some of the functions parties have in doing this
concerns with lobbyists
- close links with government raises concerns over elite or wealthy groups being able to buy influence within government
- there have been numerous scandals involving lobbying that have undermined government credibility
pressure groups’ use of direct action
including protests and advertising in order to raise public awareness of an issue, which may include disobedience or breaking the law
- Greenpeace protesters interrupting Truss’s conference speech October 2022
- Led by Donkeys using social media and advertising to highlight its concerns over Conservative government policy
pressure groups’ use of legal action
groups can challenge government policy in the courts if they have the means and legal standing to do so
- Reclaim the Streets won case against the Metropolitan Police for their actions at the vigil for Sarah Everard
- the government was prevented from implementing its policy to process asylum seekers in Rwanda by the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR)
pressure groups’ use of mobilising the public
if a group can demonstrate to the government that a lot of voters care about an issue, they may have more chance of gaining influence. This is done through social media, mass demonstrations or petitions
- a vigil held following the murder of Sarah Everard for people to pay their respects, and highlight concerns over the safety of women
- a petition begun by Marcus Rashford gained over 1 million signatures to expand the free school meals programme
pressure groups’ use of political action
if groups can work alongside politicians, they may be able to directly influence policy, or pay lobbyists to do so. They can also submit their views to the government, or donate to political parties
- Action on Smoking and Health agreed to shape government legislation on various smoking bans
- the NFU has submitted a number of responses to government plans regarding badger culling
Factors that affect pressure group success
- methods (it is more difficult for the government to be seen to be working with groups that break the law)
- status (insider groups who have good relationships with the government may find getting influence easier than outsiders)
- the government in power (a government with similar ideology with a group may be more inclined to listen to it)
- wealth (groups that can afford expensive lobbyists or advertising campaigns do not need to resort to methods such as civil disobedience, making them more legitimate)
- extent of support (if a group can demonstrate wide public support, the government may be more inclined to listen to it, as it represents a greater number of voters)
- timing of next election (the government may be more concerned about feelings of voters closer to a general election)
what are civil liberties
the rights that a citizen of a country is given by their government or constitution
where are key rights protected
- Manga Carta 1215
- Human Rights Act 1998
- Freedom of Information Act 2000
- Equality Act 2010
Magna Carta
first outlined that no one should be imprisoned unlawfully, later developed into Habeas Corpus Act 1679
Human Rights Act
enshrined the European Convention of Human Rights into UK law, including the right to education, freedom of expression and freedom from torture
Freedom of Information Act
allowed the UK public to request information from public authorities about their work to ensure government transparency. However, there are a number of exceptions e.g. regarding security services
Equality Act
protects people against discrimination based on the 9 protected characteristics
how does the judiciary protect rights
the courts protect rights through judicial review- if someone believes that the government has exceeded its authority, they can challenge this ins court.
e.g. In 2022, the UK Supreme Court ruled that abortion clinics in Northern Ireland could create ‘buffer zones’ which prevented protesters from going within an area around the clinicto protect users and staff
how does UK parliament protect rights
as parliament is sovereign, it can protect rights or even challenge them, through the passage of new legislation.
e.g. In 2022, the government passed the Police, Crime, Sentencing and Courts Act, which restricted protesting rights, but the government said this was to protect the public fro disruption.
how do devolved parliaments protect rights
devolved bodies in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland can also pass legislation to protect rights, provided it does not clash with law made by parliament.
e.g. in 2023, the Scottish government passed the Gender Recognition Reform (Scotland) Bill, although the implementation of this law was prevented by UK parliament
how do pressure groups protect rights
pressure groups can seek influence on matters of rights protection. This may be through the courts, through the media, or through their relationship with the government.
e.g. In 2023, thousands of demonstrators protested at Downing Street regarding the government anti-strike legislation. Many of the strikers were trade union members.
how does the European Court of Human Rights protect rights
the ECHR is the court of the Council of Europe, which can hear challenges under human rights law.
e.g. In 2022, the ECHR temporarily blocked the UK government from introducing its policy to fly asylum seekers to Rwanda until the policy had been properly scrutinised and cases heard.
evidence UK democracy is healthy
- voter participation in recent elections has increased from 2000s lows, improving representative democracy and legitimacy for government
- development of social media has allowed people to become more involved with pressure group movements to raise awareness of current issues, improving pluralist democracy
- citizens’ rights have been increasingly enshrined in parliamentary legislation, improving liberal democracy
- creation of UK supreme court from 2005 (opened 2009) added a body that can challenge the power of government, improving both pluralist and liberal democracy
- increased devolution has spread power throughout the UK, improving pluralist democracy
- referendums have become an increasing and accepted feature of the UK political system, improving direct democracy
- the UK’s elections are free and fair, and there is universal suffrage, all of which are key principles of liberal democracy
evidence UK democracy is not healthy
- voter participation may have increased, but turnout in 2024 general election 60%, and even lower in local elections. This undermined legitimacy of elected representatives and the government that is formed
- participation in the form of party membership has broadly declined too meaning that few citizens who are party members are playing a large role in shaping party policy, undermining pluralist democracy
- supreme court can be ignored by the UK government as Parliament is sovereign, which could limit the power of the court to challenge government, undermining liberal democracy
- parliament has made laws that restrict the rights of citizens, including the right to strike, right to protest, and brining in stricter voter identification laws, and there is little that can be done to challenge this legislation, which undermined liberal democracy
- referendums are called only when the government wishes, as seen with the Scottish government’s request for a second independence referendum. This undermines the use of direct democracy in the UK
- the UK’s use of first-past-the-post could undermine voter choice, as minor parties are unlikely to win, and under 18-year-olds and prisoners still do not have the right to vote
evidence rights are well protected
- parliamentary sovereignty means parliament can pass legislation to enshrine new rights for citizens as society advances e.g. the Marriage Act 2013 made same sex marriage legal in England and Wales
- the Supreme Court in 2005, opened 2009, means the court is more independent and neutral than its predecessor and may therefore be willing to challenge the government
- the Supreme Court can challenge national devolved governments, and other bodies, if they infringe on the rights of citizens e.g. the Ashers Bakery case 2018 supreme court ruled it would violate the baker’s religious rights to write a pro-gay marriage slogan on the cake
- UK as a member of the ECHR, and has enshrined the European Convention on Human Rights into UK law as the Human Rights Act e.g. when the UK government tried to deport asylum seekers to Rwanda, the ECHR granted an interim measure preventing the removal of some people until a full UK judicial review of their case had taken place
evidence rights are not well protected
- parliament is able to make laws that challenge rights, or undoes previous legislation e.g. the Strikes Bill restricted the ability of people to take strike action and the Police, Crime, Sentencing and Courts Act restricted the right of citizens to protest
- the Supreme Court can be challenged by the UK government, which is ultimately sovereign, so, not only could the court be ignored, but any laws it is using in its cases could ultimately be changed by Parliament
- the Supreme Court can also rule in favour of the government, which may challenge rights e.g. Shamima Begum lost her SC case to return to the UK so that she could argue her case to not lose UK citizenship
- the UK has previously ignored rulings from the European Court of Human Rights e.g. case of Hirst vs. UK 2005, the ECHR ruled that prisoners should be given the vote, which the UK government ignored
there has been considerable debate in the Conservative government since 2019 about the UK’s membership in the ECHR e.g. Sunak said he was prepared to withdraw the UK from the ECHR if it continued to challenge the government’s plans on illegal immigration
conflict between individual and collective rights
In Ashers Bakery case 2018, the Supreme Court ruled it would violate the baker’s religious rights to write a pro-gay marriage slogan on a cake. Although the rights of religious groups were protected, this came at the expense of LGBTQ+ rights.
Similarly, restrictions of the rights to protest and strike protected the rights of society to function.
Conflict between different groups can make it difficult to ensure complete protections of rights for all people.
alternative vote referendum 2011
turnout- 42.2%
result- no
consequences:
- defeat as a setback for Clegg in the coalition, as he was in charge of the bill and timing of it
- allowed Lib Dems to press the conservative leadership to offer strong support for HOL reform, leading to removal of 92 hereditary peers
scottish independence referendum 2014
turnout- 84.59%
result- no
consequences:
- neither side of referendum was content with results, as level of support for yes gave hope
- lead to more devolution to Scottish government
- discussions and tensions have continued since failed referendum
- SNP lost 500,000 votes gaining 30% share of scottish votes in 2024
- 16 and 17 year olds allowed the vote in the referendum, leading to passing of Scottish election act to lower voting age to 16
UK European Union referendum 2016
turnout- 72.2%
result- leave (51.9%)
consequences:
- result triggered beginning of process to leave the EU
- UK negotiations to leave continued until 31 Jan 2020 when the deal was finalised after seven rounds of Brexit negotiations
- negotiations are ongoing, as in May 2023, the EU implemented the Windsor Framework to make it easier to move a range of goods from GB to NI, as well as placing safeguards in place to protect the EU’s single market
- turnout of 2024 general election at 60%, lowest since 2001, showing how trust in government has reduced immensely due to multiple misleading negotiations during Brexit
Good Friday Agreement 1998
turnout- 81.1% in NI, 56.3% in Ireland
result- yes
consequences:
- UK parliament passed the NI act 1998, including the devolution of authority over certain policy areas from the UK parliament, and the decommissioning of paramilitary groups’ weapons
- St. Andrews Agreement after a breakthrough of political turmoil in NI
- by mid 2010s, the institutions envisioned by the Good Friday Agreement were generally functioning well
- Jan 2020, Stormont reopened in a major compromise, which was short-lived. The UK parliament reached a deal with DUP in Jan 2024 to lead the way for a restored government
- health services fell into crisis after the breakdown of local government and strikes. Loss of EU funding slashed funding for many important social programmes
UK European Communities membership referendum 1975
turnout- 64.2%
result- yes
consequences:
- overwhelming majority supported conservative view that the UK should respect treaties with Europe
- lack of satisfaction with this decision has grown periodically, leading to Brexit referendum 2016, where majority voted to leave the EU
- although the European integration project at the time helped to boost our economy with economic migration, and trade with European countries, these issues are some of the main things Brexit hoped to solve
- the ‘no’ campaign focused on national sovereignty and self-governance, which is what was sought after in the 2016 Brexit campaign
Just Stop Oil: outsider pressure group (aims, membership, methods, funding, level of success)
- aims: to stop the UK government from licensing all new oil, gas and coal projects, and to get UK government to sign up to a Fossil Fuel Treaty to just stop oil by 2030
- method: non-violent resistance e.g. strikes, boycotts, mass protests and social disruption
- membership: around 1000 active members who are prepared to be arrested for the cause
- funding: from the Climate Emergency Fund (US network supporting climate activism), donations from private donors and organisations accepted
- level or success: public awareness raised, celebrated Lloyds Bank’s decision to end Direct financing of new greenfield oil and gas developments. Starmer pledges to impose a moratorium on new oil and gas projects, putting Labour on track with the demands of just stop oil, Starmer said he would continue with Conservative plan ensuring harsher sentences on disruptive protesters
Age UK: insider pressure group (aims, methods, membership, funding, level of success)
- aims: helping older people who need support in later life, support local communities, reducing poverty of elderly people
- method: promoting interests of elderly people to politicians
- membership: packages include discounted services linked to the charity in return for membership donation and any future donations
- funding: from fundraising in over 520 charity shops of £47 million per year
- level of success: successful in campaigns against elder abuse with 27,000 people pledging support. Age International taking the cause across the world to raise more money, money raised helps raise awareness of elderly people in poverty, and supporting elderly people in the community
The Countryside Alliance: insider pressure group (aims, methods, membership, funding, level of success)
- aims: to achieve better understanding and acceptance of lawful hunting, promoting rural issues, supporting local businesses
- methods: ensuring politicians understand the needs and concerns of rural communities, responding to proposed laws and policies and lobbying MPs on issues, as well as political campaigning to promote rural way of life
- membership: includes access to experts who are shaping political party policy and insurance for country pursuits such as hunting, shooting and fishing
- funding: money raised from the public, as they do not work with commercial participators
- level of success: opposition to Hunting Act 2004 and campaigns against protection of Wild Mammals Scottish Act 2002, defending hunting and shooting in the UK. Fighting against vegan-only councils
Extinction Rebellion: outsider (aims, methods, membership, funding, level of success)
- aims: to get institutions to communicate truth, reducing greenhouse gas emissions to net zero by 2025 (set years ago), get the government to be led by a Citizens’ Assembly on Climate and Ecological Justice
- methods: non-violent direct action involving civil disobedience campaigns to create change. Mobilising large numbers of people to gain media attention and working with other climate and environmental groups
- membership: weekly live online talks to discuss issues and for the public to ask questions, there is a newsletter, members are encouraged to join demonstrations and connect with people in their community
- funding: by crowdfunding, major donors, non-governmental organisations, trusts and foundations focused on this issue
- level of success: major protests including participation from thousands (two weeks of protest in 2021 drew out thousands of police and included 480 arrests of protesters and mass media attention), temporary shift from public disruption tactics since 2023 has seen less media attention
Action on Smoking and Health: insider (aims, methods, membership, funding, level of success)
- aims: publicise risks associated with tobacco smoking, campaign for greater restriction on use of cigarettes and sale of cigarettes
- methods: publishing reports to show harmful nature of smoking, providing information to local authorities about vaping in young people, working with government institutions to protect younger generations
- membership: subscription to ASH daily news which links to major issues
- funding: charity works, the Royal College of Physicians who began the charity in 1971
- level of success: supporting government action on restrictions, advertising a ban, campaigning to protect non-smokers, engaging the media to communicate risks, politically opposing tobacco use
Amnesty International: insider (aims, methods, membership, funding, level of success)
- aims: promote and protect human rights worldwide, drawing attention to human rights abuses, undertaking research to prevent human rights abuses, projects related to immigration, asylum seekers, refugees and abolition of the death penalty
- method: drawing attention to human rights abuses, campaigning for compliance with international laws and standards, mobilisation of public opinion to pressure governments
- membership: includes info about campaigns and how to take action, participation in the global governance, discussing and voting on important decisions for future action
- funding: donations from the public, limited charity work
- level of success: millions of members and supporters across the world, sparing thousands of prisoners from death and detention, annual report (the state of the world’s human rights) covered the human rights situation in 149 countries, raising awareness of many issues
National Farmer’s Union: outsider (aims, methods, membership, funding, level of success)
- aims: to represent more than 45,000 farming and growing businesses, campaigning for a stable and sustainable future for British farmers, protecting and promoting British farm life
- methods: lobbying to make a change, using technical experts and offices, ensuring farming is on the political agenda, securing media coverage
- membership: promised a voice on farming-related issues, access to information, advice and guidance from professionals on money-saving
- funding: from government and charitable donations from the public
- level of success: filing of clear plan ‘British farming: A Blueprint for the Future’ , successful lobbying of MPs in many communities across the UK, keeping all members informed with the struggles for creating a sustainable future for all British farmers
