Definitions Flashcards
acclimatization
Physiological responses to
changes in the environment that occur during an individual’s lifetime. Such responses
may be temporary or permanent, depending on the duration of the environmental
change and when in the individual’s life it
occurs. The capacity for acclimatization may
typify an entire species or population, and
because it’s under genetic influence, it’s subject to evolutionary factors such as natural
selection and genetic drift.
Acheulian
Pertaining to
a stone tool industry from the Early and
Middle Pleistocene; characterized by a large
proportion of bifacial tools (flaked on both
sides). Acheulian tool kits are common in
Africa, southwest Asia, and western Europe,
but they’re thought to be less common elsewhere. Also spelled Acheulean.
adaptation
Functional response of organisms or populations to the environment.
Adaptation results from evolutionary change
(specifically, as a result of natural selection).
adaptive niche
An organism’s entire way of life: where it lives, what it eats, how it gets
food, how it avoids predators, and so on.
adaptive radiation
The relatively rapid
expansion and diversification of life-forms
into new ecological niches.
affiliative behaviors
Amicable associations
between individuals. Affiliative behaviors,
such as grooming, reinforce social bonds
and promote group cohesion.
agriculture
Cultural activities associated
with planting, herding, and processing
domesticated species; farming.
allele frequency
In a population, the percentage of all the alleles at a locus accounted
for by one specific allele.
alleles
Alternate forms of a gene. Alleles
occur at the same locus on paired chromosomes and thus govern the same trait.
However, because they are different, their
action may result in different expressions of that trait. The term allele is often used
synonymously with gene.
alluvial
Deposited by streams, usually during flood stages.
altruism
Behavior that benefits another
individual but at some potential risk or cost
to oneself.
amino acids
Small molecules that are the
components of proteins.
analogies
Similarities between organisms
based strictly on common function, with no
assumed common evolutionary descent
Anasazi
Ancient culture of
the southwestern United States, associated
with preserved cliff dwellings and masonry
pueblo sites.
ancestral
Referring to characters inherited
by a group of organisms from a remote
ancestor and thus not diagnostic of groups
(lineages) that diverged after the character
first appeared; also called primitive.
Anthropocene
The geological epoch during
which human behavior became one of the
earth’s major geomorphological and geological processes
anthropocentric
Viewing nonhuman organisms in terms of human experience and
capabilities; emphasizing the importance of
humans over everything else.
anthropoids
Members of a suborder of Primates, the infraorder Anthropoidea (pronounced “an-throw-poid´-ee-uh”). Traditionally, the suborder includes monkeys, apes, and humans.
anthropology
The field of inquiry that studies human culture and evolutionary aspects
of human biology; includes cultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, and physical
anthropology
anthropometry
Measurement of human
body parts. When osteologists measure skeletal elements, the term osteometry is
often used.
anthropomorphic
(anthro, meaning “man,”
and morph, meaning “shape”) Having or
being given humanlike characteristics.
antigens
Large molecules found on the
surface of cells. Several different loci governing antigens on red and white blood cells
are known. (Foreign antigens provoke an
immune response in individuals.)
antiquarian
Relating to an interest in objects
and texts of the past.
anvils
Surfaces on which an object such as
a palm nut, root, or seed is placed before
being struck with another object such as
a stone.
arboreal
Tree-living; adapted to life in
the trees.
archaeobotanical
Referring to the analysis
and interpretation of the remains of ancient
plants recovered from the archaeological
record.
archaeological record
The material remains
of the human past and the physical contexts
of these remains (e.g., stratigraphic relationships, association with other remains).
archaeometry
Application of the methods of
the natural and physical sciences to the investigation of archaeological materials.
Archaic
North American archaeological
period that follows the end of the Ice Age
and traditionally ends with the beginning
of the use of ceramics; equivalent to the
Mesolithic in the Old World.
argon-argon (40Ar/39Ar) method
Working
on a similar basis as the potassium-argon
method, this approach uses the ratio of
argon-40 to argon-39 for dating igneous and
metamorphic rocks; it offers precision and
temporal range advantages for dating some
early hominin sites.
artifacts
Objects or materials made or modified for use by hominins. The earliest artifacts
tend to be tools made of stone or, occasionally, bone.
Aurignacian
Pertaining to an Upper
Paleolithic stone tool industry in Europe
beginning about 40,000 ya.
aurochs
European wild oxen, ancestral to
domesticated cattle.
australopiths
A colloquial name referring to a diverse group of Plio-Pleistocene
African hominins. Australopiths are the most
abundant and widely distributed of all early
hominins and are also the most completely
studied.
autonomic
Pertaining to physiological responses not under voluntary control. An example in chimpanzees would be the erection of body hair during excitement. Blushing is a human example. Both convey information regarding emotional states, but neither is deliberate, and communication isn’t intended.
autosomes
All chromosomes except the sex
chromosomes.
Aztecs
Militaristic people who dominated
the Valley of Mexico and surrounding area at
the time of the European conquest.
Bandkeramik
Literally, “lined pottery”; refers
to a Neolithic ceramic ware widely encountered in central Europe and to the culture
that produced it.
behavior
Anything organisms do that
involves action in response to internal or
external stimuli; the response of an individual, group, or species to its environment.
Such responses may or may not be deliberate, and they aren’t necessarily the result of
conscious decision making
behavioral ecology
The study of the evolution of behavior, emphasizing the role
of ecological factors as agents of natural
selection. Behaviors and behavioral patterns
have been favored because they increase
the reproductive fitness of individuals (i.e.,
they are adaptive) in specific environmental
contexts.
Beringia
The dry-land connection between Asia and America that existed
periodically during the Pleistocene epoch.
binocular vision
Vision characterized
by overlapping visual fields provided by
forward-facing eyes. Binocular vision is
essential to depth perception.
binomial nomenclature
(binomial, meaning
“two names”) In taxonomy, the convention
established by Carolus Linnaeus whereby
genus and species names are used to refer
to species. For example, Homo sapiens refers
to human beings.
biocultural evolution
The mutual, interactive evolution of human biology and culture; the concept that biology makes culture
possible and that developing culture further
influences the direction of biological evolution; a basic concept in understanding the
unique components of human evolution.
biological continuity
Refers to a biological
continuum—the idea that organisms are
related through common ancestry and that
traits present in one species are also seen to
varying degrees in others. When expressions
of a phenomenon continuously grade into
one another so that there are no discrete
categories, they exist on a continuum. Color
is one such phenomenon, and life-forms are
another.
biological continuum
Refers to the fact
that organisms are related through common ancestry and that behaviors and traits
seen in one species are also seen in others
to varying degrees. (When expressions of
a phenomenon continuously grade into
one another so that there are no discrete
categories, they are said to exist on a continuum. Color is such a phenomenon.)
biological determinism
The concept that
phenomena, including various aspects of
behavior (e.g., intelligence, values, morals)
are governed by biological (genetic) factors;
the inaccurate association of various behavioral attributes with certain biological traits,
such as skin color.
biological species concept
A depiction of
species as groups of individuals capable of fertile interbreeding but reproductively isolated from other such groups.
biostratigraphy
A relative dating technique
based on regular changes seen in evolving
groups of animals as well as the presence or
absence of particular species.
bipedal locomotion
Walking on two feet.
Walking on two legs is the single most distinctive feature of the hominins.
blade technology
Chipped stone toolmaking approach in which blades struck from
prepared cores are the main raw material
from which tools are made. A blade is a
chipped stone flake that is at least twice as
long as it is wide.
brachiation
Arm swinging, a form of locomotion used by some primates. Brachiation
involves hanging from a branch and moving
by alternately swinging from one arm to
the other.
breeding isolates
Populations that are
clearly isolated geographically and/or
socially from other breeding groups
burin
A small flake tool with a chisel-like
end, used to cut bone, antler, and ivory.
carrying capacity
In an environment, the
maximum population of a specific organism
that can be maintained at a steady state.
Çatalhöyük
A large
early Neolithic site in southern Turkey. The
name is Turkish for “forked mound.
catastrophism
The view that the earth’s
geological landscape is the result of violent
cataclysmic events. This view was promoted by Cuvier, especially in opposition to
Lamarck.
centromere
The constricted portion of
a chromosome. After replication, the two
strands of a double-stranded chromosome
are joined at the centromere.
cercopithecines
Members of the subfamily of Old World
monkeys that includes baboons, macaques,
and guenons.
charnel houses
Buildings that hold the
bones or bodies of the dead.
Chatelperronian
Pertaining to an Upper
Paleolithic industry found in France and
Spain.
Chavín de Huantar
Chavín civic-ceremonial
center in the northern highlands of Peru.
Chimor
A powerful culture that dominated
the northern Peruvian coast between about
1,000 and 500 ya.
Chordata
The phylum of the animal kingdom that includes vertebrates.
chromosomes
Discrete structures, composed of DNA and protein, found only in the
nuclei of cells. Chromosomes are visible only
under magnification during certain stages of
cell division.
city-states
Urban centers that form autonomous sociopolitical units.
civilization
The larger social order that
includes states related by language, traditions, history, economic ties, and other
shared cultural aspects.
clade
A group of organisms sharing a common ancestor. The group includes the common ancestor and all descendants.
cladistics
An approach to classification
that attempts to make rigorous evolutionary interpretations based solely on analysis
of certain types of homologous characters
(those considered to be derived characters).
cladogram
A chart showing evolutionary
relationships as determined by cladistic
analysis. It’s based solely on interpretation
of shared derived characters. It contains
no time component and does not imply
ancestor-descendant relationships.
classification
In biology, the ordering of
organisms into categories, such as orders,
families, and genera, to show evolutionary
relationships.
climatic maximum
Episode of higher average annual temperatures that affected much
of the globe for several millennia after the
end of the last Ice Age; also known as the altithermal in the western United States or
hypsithermal in the East.
clones
A clone is an organism that is genetically identical to another organism. The term
may also be used to refer to genetically identical DNA segments and molecules.
Clovis
North American archaeological
complex characterized by distinctive fluted
projectile points, dating to roughly 13,500–
13,000 ya; once widely believed to be representative of specialized big game hunters,
who may have driven many late Pleistocene
species into extinction.
codominance
The expression of both alleles
in heterozygotes. In this situation, neither
allele is dominant or recessive; thus, both
influence the phenotype.
collectors
Hunter-gatherers who tend to
stay in one place for a long time. A task
group may range far afield to hunt and
collect food and other resources that are
brought back to camp and shared among its
inhabitants. Valued food resources are commonly stored in anticipation of future use.
colobines
Members of
the subfamily of Old World monkeys that
includes the African colobus monkeys and
Asian langurs.
communication
Any act that conveys information, in the form of a message, to another
individual. Frequently, the result of communication is a change in the behavior of
the recipient. Communication may not be
deliberate but may instead be the result of
involuntary processes or a secondary consequence of an intentional action.
complementary
Referring to the fact that
DNA bases form base pairs in a precise manner. For example, adenine can bond only
to thymine. These two bases are said to be
complementary because one requires the
other to form a complete DNA base pair.
composite tool
Minimally, a tool made of
several pieces. For example, a prehistoric
knife typically included a handle or shaft, a
chipped stone blade, and binding materials such as glue or sinew to hold the blade
firmly in place.
contexts
The spatial and temporal associations of artifacts and features in an archaeological site. Archaeologists distinguish
between primary context, which simply
means that it has not been disturbed since
it was originally deposited, and secondary
context, which has been disturbed and
redeposited.
continental drift
The movement of continents on sliding plates of the earth’s surface.
As a result, the positions of large landmasses
have shifted drastically during the earth’s
history.
coprolites
Preserved fecal material, which
can be studied for what the contents reveal
about diet and health.
Cordilleran
Pleistocene
ice sheet originating in mountains of western
North America.
core area
The portion of a home range
containing the highest concentration and
most reliable supplies of food and water.
The core area is defended.
craft specializations
An economic system
in which some individuals do not engage
in food production, but devote their labor
to the production of other goods and services. Examples include potters, carpenters,
smiths, shamen, oracles, and teachers.
cross-dating
Relative dating method that
estimates the age of artifacts and features
based on their similarities with comparable
materials from dated contexts
cultigen
A plant that is wholly dependent
on humans; a domesticate.
cultivars
Wild plants fostered by human
efforts to make them more productive.
culture
All aspects of human adaptation,
including technology, traditions, language,
religion, and social roles. Culture is a set of
learned behaviors; it is transmitted from one
generation to the next through learning and
not by biological or genetic means.
cuneiform
(cuneus, meaning “wedge”)
Wedge-shaped writing of ancient
Mesopotamia.
cusps
The bumps on the chewing surface
of premolars and molars.
cytoplasm
The portion of the cell contained
within the cell membrane, excluding the
nucleus. The cytoplasm consists of a semifluid material and contains numerous structures involved in cell function.
Dalton
Late or transitional Paleo-Indian projectile point type that dates between 10,000
and 8,000 ya in the eastern United States..
data
Facts from which conclusions can be drawn; scientific information.
demographic
Pertaining to the size or rate
of increase of human populations.
dendrochronology
Archaeological dating method based on the study of yearly
growth rings in ancient wood.
dental caries
Erosions in teeth caused by
decay; cavities.
dental formula
Numerical device that indicates the number of each type of tooth in
each side of the upper and lower jaws.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
The doublestranded molecule that contains the genetic
code. DNA is a main component of
chromosomes.
derived (modified)
Referring to characters
that are modified from the ancestral condition and thus diagnostic of particular evolutionary lineages.
desertification
Any process resulting in the
formation or growth of deserts.
diffusion
The idea that widely distributed
cultural traits originated in a single center
and spread from one group to another
through contact or exchange.
directional change
In a genetic sense, the
nonrandom change in allele frequencies
caused by natural selection. The change
is directional because the frequencies of
alleles consistently increase or decrease
(they change in one direction), depending
on environmental circumstances and the
selective pressures involved.
discoid technique
A prepared-core technique in which flakes are struck toward the
center of the stone core; greater efficiency
of raw material use than Levallois; also called
“radial core” technique.
displays
Sequences of repetitious behaviors that serve to communicate emotional
states. Nonhuman primate displays are most
frequently associated with reproductive or
competitive types of behavior. Examples
include chest slapping in gorillas and, in
male chimpanzees, dragging and waving
branches while charging and threatening
other animals.
diurnal
Active during the day.
divination
Foretelling the future.
domestication
A state of interdependence
between humans and selected plant or
animal species. Intense selection activity induces permanent genetic change,
enhancing a species’ value to humans
dominance hierarchies
Systems of social
organization wherein individuals within a
group are ranked relative to one another.
Higher-ranking animals have greater access
to preferred food items and mating partners
than lower-ranking individuals.
dominant
Describing a trait governed
by an allele that can be expressed in the
presence of another, different allele (i.e., in
hetero zygotes). Dominant alleles prevent
the expression of recessive alleles in heterozygotes. (Note: This is the definition of complete dominance.)
ecofacts
Natural materials that give environmental information about a site. Examples include plant and animal remains discarded as food waste and also pollen grains preserved in the soil.
ecological niche
The position of a species
within its physical and biological environments. A species’ ecological niche is defined
by such components as diet, terrain, vegetation, type of predators, relationships with
other species, and activity patterns, and
each niche is unique to a given species.
Together, ecological niches make up an
ecosystem.
ecological
Pertaining to the relationships
between organisms and all aspects of their
environment (temperature, predators, nonpredators, vegetation, availability of food
and water, types of food, disease organisms,
parasites, etc.).
El Niño
Periodic climatic instability, related
to temporary warming of Pacific Ocean
waters, which may influence storm patterns
and precipitation for several years.
empathy
The ability to identify with the
feelings and thoughts of another individual.
empirical
Relying on experiment or observation; from the Latin empiricus, meaning
“experienced.
enculturation
The process by which individuals, generally as children, learn the values
and beliefs of the family, peer groups, and
society in which they are raised.
endemic
Continuously present in a
population.
endothermic
(endo, meaning “within” or
“internal”) Able to maintain internal body
temperature by producing energy through
metabolic processes within cells; characteristic of mammals, birds, and perhaps some
dinosaurs.
Enlightenment
An eighteenth-century philosophical movement in western Europe that assumed a knowable order to the natural world and the interpretive value of reason as the primary means of identifying and explaining this order.
enzymes
Specialized proteins that initiate
and direct chemical reactions in the body
Epipaleolithic
(epi, meaning “after”) Late
Pleistocene and early Holocene period of
foragers and collectors in the Near East and
adjacent parts of Asia.
epochs
Categories of the geological time scale; subdivisions of periods. In the Cenozoic era, epochs include the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene (from the Tertiary period) and the Pleistocene and Holocene (from the Quaternary period).
estrus
Period of sexual receptivity in female
mammals (except humans), correlated with
ovulation. When used as an adjective, the
word is spelled “estrous.
ethnoarchaeologists
Archaeologists who
use ethnographic methods to study modern
peoples so that they can better understand
and explain patterning in the archaeological
record.
ethnoarchaeology
Approach used by
archaeologists to gain insights into the past
by studying contemporary people.
ethnocentric
Viewing other cultures from
the inherently biased perspective of one’s
own culture. Ethnocentrism often results
in other cultures being seen as inferior to
one’s own.
ethnographies
Detailed descriptive studies
of human societies. In cultural anthropology,
ethnography is traditionally the study of nonWestern societies.
eugenics
The philosophy of “race improvement” through the forced sterilization of members of some groups and increased reproduction among others; an overly simplified, often racist view that’s now discredited.
evolution
A change in the genetic structure
of a population from one generation to
the next. The term is also frequently used to
refer to the appearance of a new species.
evolutionary systematics
A traditional
approach to classification (and evolutionary
interpretation) in which presumed ancestors and descendants are traced in time by
analysis of homologous characters.
experimental archaeology
Research that
attempts to replicate ancient technologies
and construction procedures to test hypotheses about past activities.
faience
Glassy material, usually
of blue-green color, shaped into beads,
amulets, and figurines by ancient Egyptians.
features
Products of human activity that
cannot be removed from the archaeological
record as a single discrete entity. Examples include hearths, human burials, and the
remains of a Paleolithic hut.
fission-track dating
Dating technique
based on the natural radiometric decay
(fission) of uranium-238 atoms, which leaves
traces in certain geological materials.
fitness
Pertaining to natural selection, a
measure of the relative reproductive success
of individuals. Fitness can be measured by
an individual’s genetic contribution to the
next generation compared with that of
other individuals. The terms genetic fitness,
reproductive fitness, and differential reproductive success are also used.
fixity of species
The notion that species,
once created, can never change; an idea
diametrically opposed to theories of biological evolution.
flexed
The position of the body in a bent
orientation, with arms and legs drawn up to
the chest.
fluted point
A biface or projectile point
having had long, thin flakes removed from
each face to prepare the base for hafting, or
attachment to a shaft.
Folsom
Paleo-Indian archaeological complex of the southern Great Plains, around
12,500 ya, characterized by fluted projectile
points used for hunting now-extinct bison.
foragers
Hunter-gatherers who live in small
groups that move camp frequently to take
advantage of fresh resources as they come
into season, with few resources stored in
anticipation of future use.
forensic anthropology
An applied anthropological approach dealing with legal matters. Forensic anthropologists work with
coroners and law enforcement agencies in
the recovery, analysis, and identification of
human remains.
fossils
Traces or remnants of organisms
found in geological beds on the earth’s
surface.
founder effect
A type of genetic drift in
which allele frequencies are altered in small
populations that are taken from, or are remnants of, larger populations.
frugivorous
Having a diet
composed primarily of fruit.
gametes
Reproductive cells (eggs and sperm in animals) developed from precursor cells in ovaries and testes.
gene
A sequence of DNA bases that specifies the order of amino acids in an entire
protein, a portion of a protein, or any functional product. A gene may be made up of
hundreds or thousands of DNA bases.
gene flow
Exchange of genes between
populations.
gene pool
The total complement of genes
shared by the reproductive members of a
population.
genetic drift
Evolutionary changes—that
is, changes in allele frequencies—produced
by random factors. Genetic drift is a result of
small population size.
genetics
The study of gene structure and
action and of the patterns of inheritance
of traits from parent to offspring. Genetic
mechanisms are the underlying foundation
for evolutionary change.
genome
The entire genetic makeup of an
individual or species.
genotype
The genetic makeup of an individual. Genotype can refer to an organism’s
entire genetic makeup or to the alleles at a
particular locus.
genus
A group of closely
related species.
geological time scale
The organization
of earth history into eras, periods, and
epochs; commonly used by geologists and
paleoanthropologists.
Gilgamesh
Semilegendary king and culture
hero of early Uruk, reputed to have had
many marvelous adventures.
glaciations
Climatic intervals when continental ice sheets cover much of the northern continents. Glaciations are associated
with colder temperatures in northern latitudes and more arid conditions in southern
latitudes, most notably in Africa.
glyphs
Carved or incised symbolic figures.
Great Basin
Rugged, dry plateau between
the mountains of California and Utah, comprising Nevada, western Utah, southern
Oregon, and Idaho.
