Definitions Flashcards
acclimatization
Physiological responses to
changes in the environment that occur during an individual’s lifetime. Such responses
may be temporary or permanent, depending on the duration of the environmental
change and when in the individual’s life it
occurs. The capacity for acclimatization may
typify an entire species or population, and
because it’s under genetic influence, it’s subject to evolutionary factors such as natural
selection and genetic drift.
Acheulian
Pertaining to
a stone tool industry from the Early and
Middle Pleistocene; characterized by a large
proportion of bifacial tools (flaked on both
sides). Acheulian tool kits are common in
Africa, southwest Asia, and western Europe,
but they’re thought to be less common elsewhere. Also spelled Acheulean.
adaptation
Functional response of organisms or populations to the environment.
Adaptation results from evolutionary change
(specifically, as a result of natural selection).
adaptive niche
An organism’s entire way of life: where it lives, what it eats, how it gets
food, how it avoids predators, and so on.
adaptive radiation
The relatively rapid
expansion and diversification of life-forms
into new ecological niches.
affiliative behaviors
Amicable associations
between individuals. Affiliative behaviors,
such as grooming, reinforce social bonds
and promote group cohesion.
agriculture
Cultural activities associated
with planting, herding, and processing
domesticated species; farming.
allele frequency
In a population, the percentage of all the alleles at a locus accounted
for by one specific allele.
alleles
Alternate forms of a gene. Alleles
occur at the same locus on paired chromosomes and thus govern the same trait.
However, because they are different, their
action may result in different expressions of that trait. The term allele is often used
synonymously with gene.
alluvial
Deposited by streams, usually during flood stages.
altruism
Behavior that benefits another
individual but at some potential risk or cost
to oneself.
amino acids
Small molecules that are the
components of proteins.
analogies
Similarities between organisms
based strictly on common function, with no
assumed common evolutionary descent
Anasazi
Ancient culture of
the southwestern United States, associated
with preserved cliff dwellings and masonry
pueblo sites.
ancestral
Referring to characters inherited
by a group of organisms from a remote
ancestor and thus not diagnostic of groups
(lineages) that diverged after the character
first appeared; also called primitive.
Anthropocene
The geological epoch during
which human behavior became one of the
earth’s major geomorphological and geological processes
anthropocentric
Viewing nonhuman organisms in terms of human experience and
capabilities; emphasizing the importance of
humans over everything else.
anthropoids
Members of a suborder of Primates, the infraorder Anthropoidea (pronounced “an-throw-poid´-ee-uh”). Traditionally, the suborder includes monkeys, apes, and humans.
anthropology
The field of inquiry that studies human culture and evolutionary aspects
of human biology; includes cultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, and physical
anthropology
anthropometry
Measurement of human
body parts. When osteologists measure skeletal elements, the term osteometry is
often used.
anthropomorphic
(anthro, meaning “man,”
and morph, meaning “shape”) Having or
being given humanlike characteristics.
antigens
Large molecules found on the
surface of cells. Several different loci governing antigens on red and white blood cells
are known. (Foreign antigens provoke an
immune response in individuals.)
antiquarian
Relating to an interest in objects
and texts of the past.
anvils
Surfaces on which an object such as
a palm nut, root, or seed is placed before
being struck with another object such as
a stone.
arboreal
Tree-living; adapted to life in
the trees.
archaeobotanical
Referring to the analysis
and interpretation of the remains of ancient
plants recovered from the archaeological
record.
archaeological record
The material remains
of the human past and the physical contexts
of these remains (e.g., stratigraphic relationships, association with other remains).
archaeometry
Application of the methods of
the natural and physical sciences to the investigation of archaeological materials.
Archaic
North American archaeological
period that follows the end of the Ice Age
and traditionally ends with the beginning
of the use of ceramics; equivalent to the
Mesolithic in the Old World.
argon-argon (40Ar/39Ar) method
Working
on a similar basis as the potassium-argon
method, this approach uses the ratio of
argon-40 to argon-39 for dating igneous and
metamorphic rocks; it offers precision and
temporal range advantages for dating some
early hominin sites.
artifacts
Objects or materials made or modified for use by hominins. The earliest artifacts
tend to be tools made of stone or, occasionally, bone.
Aurignacian
Pertaining to an Upper
Paleolithic stone tool industry in Europe
beginning about 40,000 ya.
aurochs
European wild oxen, ancestral to
domesticated cattle.
australopiths
A colloquial name referring to a diverse group of Plio-Pleistocene
African hominins. Australopiths are the most
abundant and widely distributed of all early
hominins and are also the most completely
studied.
autonomic
Pertaining to physiological responses not under voluntary control. An example in chimpanzees would be the erection of body hair during excitement. Blushing is a human example. Both convey information regarding emotional states, but neither is deliberate, and communication isn’t intended.
autosomes
All chromosomes except the sex
chromosomes.
Aztecs
Militaristic people who dominated
the Valley of Mexico and surrounding area at
the time of the European conquest.
Bandkeramik
Literally, “lined pottery”; refers
to a Neolithic ceramic ware widely encountered in central Europe and to the culture
that produced it.
behavior
Anything organisms do that
involves action in response to internal or
external stimuli; the response of an individual, group, or species to its environment.
Such responses may or may not be deliberate, and they aren’t necessarily the result of
conscious decision making
behavioral ecology
The study of the evolution of behavior, emphasizing the role
of ecological factors as agents of natural
selection. Behaviors and behavioral patterns
have been favored because they increase
the reproductive fitness of individuals (i.e.,
they are adaptive) in specific environmental
contexts.
Beringia
The dry-land connection between Asia and America that existed
periodically during the Pleistocene epoch.
binocular vision
Vision characterized
by overlapping visual fields provided by
forward-facing eyes. Binocular vision is
essential to depth perception.
binomial nomenclature
(binomial, meaning
“two names”) In taxonomy, the convention
established by Carolus Linnaeus whereby
genus and species names are used to refer
to species. For example, Homo sapiens refers
to human beings.
biocultural evolution
The mutual, interactive evolution of human biology and culture; the concept that biology makes culture
possible and that developing culture further
influences the direction of biological evolution; a basic concept in understanding the
unique components of human evolution.
biological continuity
Refers to a biological
continuum—the idea that organisms are
related through common ancestry and that
traits present in one species are also seen to
varying degrees in others. When expressions
of a phenomenon continuously grade into
one another so that there are no discrete
categories, they exist on a continuum. Color
is one such phenomenon, and life-forms are
another.
biological continuum
Refers to the fact
that organisms are related through common ancestry and that behaviors and traits
seen in one species are also seen in others
to varying degrees. (When expressions of
a phenomenon continuously grade into
one another so that there are no discrete
categories, they are said to exist on a continuum. Color is such a phenomenon.)
biological determinism
The concept that
phenomena, including various aspects of
behavior (e.g., intelligence, values, morals)
are governed by biological (genetic) factors;
the inaccurate association of various behavioral attributes with certain biological traits,
such as skin color.
biological species concept
A depiction of
species as groups of individuals capable of fertile interbreeding but reproductively isolated from other such groups.
biostratigraphy
A relative dating technique
based on regular changes seen in evolving
groups of animals as well as the presence or
absence of particular species.
bipedal locomotion
Walking on two feet.
Walking on two legs is the single most distinctive feature of the hominins.
blade technology
Chipped stone toolmaking approach in which blades struck from
prepared cores are the main raw material
from which tools are made. A blade is a
chipped stone flake that is at least twice as
long as it is wide.
brachiation
Arm swinging, a form of locomotion used by some primates. Brachiation
involves hanging from a branch and moving
by alternately swinging from one arm to
the other.
breeding isolates
Populations that are
clearly isolated geographically and/or
socially from other breeding groups
burin
A small flake tool with a chisel-like
end, used to cut bone, antler, and ivory.
carrying capacity
In an environment, the
maximum population of a specific organism
that can be maintained at a steady state.
Çatalhöyük
A large
early Neolithic site in southern Turkey. The
name is Turkish for “forked mound.
catastrophism
The view that the earth’s
geological landscape is the result of violent
cataclysmic events. This view was promoted by Cuvier, especially in opposition to
Lamarck.
centromere
The constricted portion of
a chromosome. After replication, the two
strands of a double-stranded chromosome
are joined at the centromere.
cercopithecines
Members of the subfamily of Old World
monkeys that includes baboons, macaques,
and guenons.
charnel houses
Buildings that hold the
bones or bodies of the dead.
Chatelperronian
Pertaining to an Upper
Paleolithic industry found in France and
Spain.
Chavín de Huantar
Chavín civic-ceremonial
center in the northern highlands of Peru.
Chimor
A powerful culture that dominated
the northern Peruvian coast between about
1,000 and 500 ya.
Chordata
The phylum of the animal kingdom that includes vertebrates.
chromosomes
Discrete structures, composed of DNA and protein, found only in the
nuclei of cells. Chromosomes are visible only
under magnification during certain stages of
cell division.
city-states
Urban centers that form autonomous sociopolitical units.
civilization
The larger social order that
includes states related by language, traditions, history, economic ties, and other
shared cultural aspects.
clade
A group of organisms sharing a common ancestor. The group includes the common ancestor and all descendants.
cladistics
An approach to classification
that attempts to make rigorous evolutionary interpretations based solely on analysis
of certain types of homologous characters
(those considered to be derived characters).
cladogram
A chart showing evolutionary
relationships as determined by cladistic
analysis. It’s based solely on interpretation
of shared derived characters. It contains
no time component and does not imply
ancestor-descendant relationships.
classification
In biology, the ordering of
organisms into categories, such as orders,
families, and genera, to show evolutionary
relationships.
climatic maximum
Episode of higher average annual temperatures that affected much
of the globe for several millennia after the
end of the last Ice Age; also known as the altithermal in the western United States or
hypsithermal in the East.
clones
A clone is an organism that is genetically identical to another organism. The term
may also be used to refer to genetically identical DNA segments and molecules.
Clovis
North American archaeological
complex characterized by distinctive fluted
projectile points, dating to roughly 13,500–
13,000 ya; once widely believed to be representative of specialized big game hunters,
who may have driven many late Pleistocene
species into extinction.
codominance
The expression of both alleles
in heterozygotes. In this situation, neither
allele is dominant or recessive; thus, both
influence the phenotype.
collectors
Hunter-gatherers who tend to
stay in one place for a long time. A task
group may range far afield to hunt and
collect food and other resources that are
brought back to camp and shared among its
inhabitants. Valued food resources are commonly stored in anticipation of future use.
colobines
Members of
the subfamily of Old World monkeys that
includes the African colobus monkeys and
Asian langurs.
communication
Any act that conveys information, in the form of a message, to another
individual. Frequently, the result of communication is a change in the behavior of
the recipient. Communication may not be
deliberate but may instead be the result of
involuntary processes or a secondary consequence of an intentional action.
complementary
Referring to the fact that
DNA bases form base pairs in a precise manner. For example, adenine can bond only
to thymine. These two bases are said to be
complementary because one requires the
other to form a complete DNA base pair.
composite tool
Minimally, a tool made of
several pieces. For example, a prehistoric
knife typically included a handle or shaft, a
chipped stone blade, and binding materials such as glue or sinew to hold the blade
firmly in place.
contexts
The spatial and temporal associations of artifacts and features in an archaeological site. Archaeologists distinguish
between primary context, which simply
means that it has not been disturbed since
it was originally deposited, and secondary
context, which has been disturbed and
redeposited.
continental drift
The movement of continents on sliding plates of the earth’s surface.
As a result, the positions of large landmasses
have shifted drastically during the earth’s
history.
coprolites
Preserved fecal material, which
can be studied for what the contents reveal
about diet and health.
Cordilleran
Pleistocene
ice sheet originating in mountains of western
North America.
core area
The portion of a home range
containing the highest concentration and
most reliable supplies of food and water.
The core area is defended.
craft specializations
An economic system
in which some individuals do not engage
in food production, but devote their labor
to the production of other goods and services. Examples include potters, carpenters,
smiths, shamen, oracles, and teachers.
cross-dating
Relative dating method that
estimates the age of artifacts and features
based on their similarities with comparable
materials from dated contexts
cultigen
A plant that is wholly dependent
on humans; a domesticate.
cultivars
Wild plants fostered by human
efforts to make them more productive.
culture
All aspects of human adaptation,
including technology, traditions, language,
religion, and social roles. Culture is a set of
learned behaviors; it is transmitted from one
generation to the next through learning and
not by biological or genetic means.
cuneiform
(cuneus, meaning “wedge”)
Wedge-shaped writing of ancient
Mesopotamia.
cusps
The bumps on the chewing surface
of premolars and molars.
cytoplasm
The portion of the cell contained
within the cell membrane, excluding the
nucleus. The cytoplasm consists of a semifluid material and contains numerous structures involved in cell function.
Dalton
Late or transitional Paleo-Indian projectile point type that dates between 10,000
and 8,000 ya in the eastern United States..
data
Facts from which conclusions can be drawn; scientific information.
demographic
Pertaining to the size or rate
of increase of human populations.
dendrochronology
Archaeological dating method based on the study of yearly
growth rings in ancient wood.
dental caries
Erosions in teeth caused by
decay; cavities.
dental formula
Numerical device that indicates the number of each type of tooth in
each side of the upper and lower jaws.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
The doublestranded molecule that contains the genetic
code. DNA is a main component of
chromosomes.
derived (modified)
Referring to characters
that are modified from the ancestral condition and thus diagnostic of particular evolutionary lineages.
desertification
Any process resulting in the
formation or growth of deserts.
diffusion
The idea that widely distributed
cultural traits originated in a single center
and spread from one group to another
through contact or exchange.
directional change
In a genetic sense, the
nonrandom change in allele frequencies
caused by natural selection. The change
is directional because the frequencies of
alleles consistently increase or decrease
(they change in one direction), depending
on environmental circumstances and the
selective pressures involved.
discoid technique
A prepared-core technique in which flakes are struck toward the
center of the stone core; greater efficiency
of raw material use than Levallois; also called
“radial core” technique.
displays
Sequences of repetitious behaviors that serve to communicate emotional
states. Nonhuman primate displays are most
frequently associated with reproductive or
competitive types of behavior. Examples
include chest slapping in gorillas and, in
male chimpanzees, dragging and waving
branches while charging and threatening
other animals.
diurnal
Active during the day.
divination
Foretelling the future.
domestication
A state of interdependence
between humans and selected plant or
animal species. Intense selection activity induces permanent genetic change,
enhancing a species’ value to humans
dominance hierarchies
Systems of social
organization wherein individuals within a
group are ranked relative to one another.
Higher-ranking animals have greater access
to preferred food items and mating partners
than lower-ranking individuals.
dominant
Describing a trait governed
by an allele that can be expressed in the
presence of another, different allele (i.e., in
hetero zygotes). Dominant alleles prevent
the expression of recessive alleles in heterozygotes. (Note: This is the definition of complete dominance.)
ecofacts
Natural materials that give environmental information about a site. Examples include plant and animal remains discarded as food waste and also pollen grains preserved in the soil.
ecological niche
The position of a species
within its physical and biological environments. A species’ ecological niche is defined
by such components as diet, terrain, vegetation, type of predators, relationships with
other species, and activity patterns, and
each niche is unique to a given species.
Together, ecological niches make up an
ecosystem.
ecological
Pertaining to the relationships
between organisms and all aspects of their
environment (temperature, predators, nonpredators, vegetation, availability of food
and water, types of food, disease organisms,
parasites, etc.).
El Niño
Periodic climatic instability, related
to temporary warming of Pacific Ocean
waters, which may influence storm patterns
and precipitation for several years.
empathy
The ability to identify with the
feelings and thoughts of another individual.
empirical
Relying on experiment or observation; from the Latin empiricus, meaning
“experienced.
enculturation
The process by which individuals, generally as children, learn the values
and beliefs of the family, peer groups, and
society in which they are raised.
endemic
Continuously present in a
population.
endothermic
(endo, meaning “within” or
“internal”) Able to maintain internal body
temperature by producing energy through
metabolic processes within cells; characteristic of mammals, birds, and perhaps some
dinosaurs.
Enlightenment
An eighteenth-century philosophical movement in western Europe that assumed a knowable order to the natural world and the interpretive value of reason as the primary means of identifying and explaining this order.
enzymes
Specialized proteins that initiate
and direct chemical reactions in the body
Epipaleolithic
(epi, meaning “after”) Late
Pleistocene and early Holocene period of
foragers and collectors in the Near East and
adjacent parts of Asia.
epochs
Categories of the geological time scale; subdivisions of periods. In the Cenozoic era, epochs include the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene (from the Tertiary period) and the Pleistocene and Holocene (from the Quaternary period).
estrus
Period of sexual receptivity in female
mammals (except humans), correlated with
ovulation. When used as an adjective, the
word is spelled “estrous.
ethnoarchaeologists
Archaeologists who
use ethnographic methods to study modern
peoples so that they can better understand
and explain patterning in the archaeological
record.
ethnoarchaeology
Approach used by
archaeologists to gain insights into the past
by studying contemporary people.
ethnocentric
Viewing other cultures from
the inherently biased perspective of one’s
own culture. Ethnocentrism often results
in other cultures being seen as inferior to
one’s own.
ethnographies
Detailed descriptive studies
of human societies. In cultural anthropology,
ethnography is traditionally the study of nonWestern societies.
eugenics
The philosophy of “race improvement” through the forced sterilization of members of some groups and increased reproduction among others; an overly simplified, often racist view that’s now discredited.
evolution
A change in the genetic structure
of a population from one generation to
the next. The term is also frequently used to
refer to the appearance of a new species.
evolutionary systematics
A traditional
approach to classification (and evolutionary
interpretation) in which presumed ancestors and descendants are traced in time by
analysis of homologous characters.
experimental archaeology
Research that
attempts to replicate ancient technologies
and construction procedures to test hypotheses about past activities.
faience
Glassy material, usually
of blue-green color, shaped into beads,
amulets, and figurines by ancient Egyptians.
features
Products of human activity that
cannot be removed from the archaeological
record as a single discrete entity. Examples include hearths, human burials, and the
remains of a Paleolithic hut.
fission-track dating
Dating technique
based on the natural radiometric decay
(fission) of uranium-238 atoms, which leaves
traces in certain geological materials.
fitness
Pertaining to natural selection, a
measure of the relative reproductive success
of individuals. Fitness can be measured by
an individual’s genetic contribution to the
next generation compared with that of
other individuals. The terms genetic fitness,
reproductive fitness, and differential reproductive success are also used.
fixity of species
The notion that species,
once created, can never change; an idea
diametrically opposed to theories of biological evolution.
flexed
The position of the body in a bent
orientation, with arms and legs drawn up to
the chest.
fluted point
A biface or projectile point
having had long, thin flakes removed from
each face to prepare the base for hafting, or
attachment to a shaft.
Folsom
Paleo-Indian archaeological complex of the southern Great Plains, around
12,500 ya, characterized by fluted projectile
points used for hunting now-extinct bison.
foragers
Hunter-gatherers who live in small
groups that move camp frequently to take
advantage of fresh resources as they come
into season, with few resources stored in
anticipation of future use.
forensic anthropology
An applied anthropological approach dealing with legal matters. Forensic anthropologists work with
coroners and law enforcement agencies in
the recovery, analysis, and identification of
human remains.
fossils
Traces or remnants of organisms
found in geological beds on the earth’s
surface.
founder effect
A type of genetic drift in
which allele frequencies are altered in small
populations that are taken from, or are remnants of, larger populations.
frugivorous
Having a diet
composed primarily of fruit.
gametes
Reproductive cells (eggs and sperm in animals) developed from precursor cells in ovaries and testes.
gene
A sequence of DNA bases that specifies the order of amino acids in an entire
protein, a portion of a protein, or any functional product. A gene may be made up of
hundreds or thousands of DNA bases.
gene flow
Exchange of genes between
populations.
gene pool
The total complement of genes
shared by the reproductive members of a
population.
genetic drift
Evolutionary changes—that
is, changes in allele frequencies—produced
by random factors. Genetic drift is a result of
small population size.
genetics
The study of gene structure and
action and of the patterns of inheritance
of traits from parent to offspring. Genetic
mechanisms are the underlying foundation
for evolutionary change.
genome
The entire genetic makeup of an
individual or species.
genotype
The genetic makeup of an individual. Genotype can refer to an organism’s
entire genetic makeup or to the alleles at a
particular locus.
genus
A group of closely
related species.
geological time scale
The organization
of earth history into eras, periods, and
epochs; commonly used by geologists and
paleoanthropologists.
Gilgamesh
Semilegendary king and culture
hero of early Uruk, reputed to have had
many marvelous adventures.
glaciations
Climatic intervals when continental ice sheets cover much of the northern continents. Glaciations are associated
with colder temperatures in northern latitudes and more arid conditions in southern
latitudes, most notably in Africa.
glyphs
Carved or incised symbolic figures.
Great Basin
Rugged, dry plateau between
the mountains of California and Utah, comprising Nevada, western Utah, southern
Oregon, and Idaho.
grooming
Picking through fur to remove
dirt, parasites, and other materials that
may be present. Social grooming is common among primates and reinforces social
relationships.
habitual bipedalism
Bipedal locomotion as
the form of locomotion shown by hominins
most of the time.
haft
To equip a tool or implement with a
handle or hilt.
half-life
The time period in which onehalf the amount of a radioactive isotope is
chemically converted to a daughter product. For example, after 1.25 billion years, half
the potassium-40 remains; after 2.5 billion
years, one-fourth remains.
Hammurabi
Early
Babylonian king, ca. 1800–1750 B.C.
Haplorhini
The primate suborder that includes tarsiers, monkeys, apes,
and humans.
Harappa
A fortified city in the
Indus Valley of northeastern Pakistan.
“hard hammer” percussion
A direct percussion method of making stone tools that
uses one rock as a hammer to knock flakes
from another rock that serves as a core.
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
The mathematical relationship expressing—under
conditions in which no evolution is
occurring—the predicted distribution of
alleles in populations; the central theorem
of population genetics.
hemispheres
The two halves of the cerebrum that are connected by a dense mass
of fibers. (The cerebrum is the large rounded
outer portion of the brain.)
hemoglobin
A protein molecule that occurs
in red blood cells and binds to oxygen
molecules.
heterodont
Having different kinds of teeth;
characteristic of mammals, whose teeth
consist of incisors, canines, premolars, and
molars.
heterozygous
Having different alleles at a
particular locus on the members of a chromosome pair.
hieroglyphics
(hiero, meaning “sacred,” and
glyphein, meaning “carving”) The picture writing of ancient Egypt
historical archaeologists
Archaeologists
who study past societies for which a contemporary written record also exists.
Hohokam
Prehistoric farming culture of southern Arizona.
Holocene
The geological epoch during
which we now live. The Holocene follows
the Pleistocene epoch and began roughly
11,000–10,000 ya.
home-based foragers
Hominins that hunt,
scavenge, or collect food and raw materials from the general locality where they
habitually live and bring these materials
back to some central or home base site
to be shared with other members of their
coresiding group.
homeobox (Hox) genes
An evolutionarily
ancient family of regulatory genes. Hox genes
direct the segmentation and patterning of
the overall body plan during embryonic
development.
homeostasis
A condition of balance, or stability, within a biological system, maintained
by the interaction of physiological mechanisms that compensate for changes (both
external and internal).
hominin
A member of the Tribe Hominini,
the evolutionary group that includes
modern humans and now-extinct bipedal
relatives.
hominoids
Members of the primate superfamily (Hominoidea) that includes apes and
humans.
homologies
Similarities between organisms
based on descent from a common ancestor
homoplasy
(homo, meaning “same,” and
plasy, meaning “growth”) The separate evolutionary development of similar characteristics in different groups of organisms..
homozygous
Having the same allele at the
same locus on both members of a chromosome pair.
honing complex
The shearing of a large
upper canine with the first lower premolar,
with the wear leading to honing of the surfaces of both teeth. This anatomical pattern
is typical of most Old World anthropoids,
but is mostly absent in hominins.
hormones
Substances (usually proteins) that
are produced by specialized cells and travel
to other parts of the body, where they influence chemical reactions and regulate various
cellular functions.
horticulture
Farming method in which only
hand tools are used; typical of most early
Neolithic societies.
Huaca del Sol
Massive
adobe pyramid built at Moche, in northern
Peru.
Human Genome Project
An international
effort that has mapped the entire human
genome.
hunter-gatherers
People who make their
living by hunting, fishing, and gathering
their food and not by producing it
hybrids
Offspring of mixed ancestry;
heterozygotes.
hypothesis
A provisional
explanation of a phenomenon. Hypotheses
require repeated testing.
hypoxia
Lack of oxygen. Hypoxia can refer
to reduced amounts of available oxygen in
the atmosphere due to lower barometric
pressure or to insufficient amounts of oxygen in the body.
Inca
People whose sophisticated culture
dominated Peru at the time of the European
arrival; also, the term for that people’s highest ruler; also spelled Inka.
index fossils
Fossil remains of known age,
used to estimate the age of the geological stratum in which they are found. For
example, extinct marine arthropods called
trilobites can be used as an index fossil
of Cambrian and Ordovician geological
formations.
indirect percussion
The method of driving
off blades and flakes from a prepared core
using a bone or antler punch to press off a
thin flake.
intelligence
Mental capacity; ability to
learn, reason, or comprehend and interpret information, facts, relationships, and
meanings; the capacity to solve problems,
whether through the application of previously acquired knowledge or through
insight.
interglacials
Climatic intervals when continental ice sheets are retreating, eventually becoming much reduced in size. Interglacials in northern latitudes are associated with warmer temperatures, while in southern latitudes the climate becomes wetter.
interspecific
Between species; refers to
variation beyond that seen within the same
species to include additional aspects seen
between two or more different species.
intragroup
Within the group as opposed to between groups (intergroup).
intraspecific
Within species; refers to variation seen within the same species.
ischial callosities
Patches of tough, hard
skin on the buttocks of Old World monkeys
and chimpanzees.
K-selected
Pertaining to K-selection, an adaptive strategy whereby individuals produce relatively few offspring in whom they invest increased parental care. Although only a few infants are born, chances of survival are increased for each one because of parental investments in time and energy. Birds, elephants, and canids (wolves, coyotes, and dogs) are examples of K-selected nonprimate species.
Kaminaljuyú
Major prehistoric Maya site located at
Guatemala City.
Kebaran
Late Pleistocene hunter-gatherers
of the eastern Mediterranean region and
Levant
kivas
Underground chambers or rooms
used for gatherings and ceremonies by
pueblo dwellers.
lactase persistence
In adults, the continued production of lactase, the enzyme
that breaks down lactose (milk sugar). This
allows adults in some human populations to
digest fresh milk products. The discontinued
production of lactase in adults leads to lactose intolerance and the inability to digest
fresh milk.
language
A standardized system of arbitrary vocal sounds, written symbols, and
gestures used in communication.
large-bodied hominoids
Those hominoids
including the great apes (orangutans, chimpanzees, gorillas) and hominins, as well as
all ancestral forms back to the time of divergence from small-bodied hominoids (i.e.,
the gibbon lineage).
Late Pleistocene
The portion of the
Pleistocene epoch beginning 125,000 ya
and ending approximately 10,000 ya.
Laurentide
Pleistocene ice
sheet centered in the Hudson Bay region and
extending across much of eastern Canada
and the northern United States.
life history traits
Characteristics and
developmental stages that influence reproductive rates. Examples include longevity,
age at sexual maturity, and length of time
between births.
locus
The position on a chromosome where a given gene
occurs. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with gene.
loess / luss
Fine-grained soil composed
of glacially pulverized rock, deposited by
the wind
Lower Paleolithic
A unit of archaeological
time that begins about 2.6 mya with the
earliest identified tools made by hominins
and ends around 200,000 years ago.
macroevolution
Changes produced only
after many generations, such as the appearance of a new species.
Magdalenian
A late Upper Paleolithic
stone tool industry in Europe that dates to
17,000–11,000 ya.
manioc
Cassava, a starchy edible root crop
of the tropics.
material culture
The physical manifestations of human activities, such as tools, art,
and structures. As the most durable aspects
of culture, material remains make up the
majority of archaeological evidence of past
societies.
matrilines
Groups that consist of a
female, her daughters, and their offspring. Matrilineal groups are common
in macaques.
Maya
Mesoamerican culture consisting of
regional kingdoms and known for its art and
architectural accomplishments; also, Native
American ethnic group of southern Mexico,
Guatemala, and Belize.
megafauna
Literally, “large animals,” those
weighing over 100 pounds.
meiosis
Cell division in specialized cells in
ovaries and testes. Meiosis involves two divisions and results in four daughter cells, each
containing only half the original number of
chromosomes. These cells can develop into
gametes.
Mendelian traits
Characteristics that are
influenced by alleles at only one genetic
locus. Examples include many blood types,
such as ABO. Many genetic disorders, including sickle-cell anemia and Tay-Sachs disease,
are also Mendelian traits.
Mesoamerica
(meso, meaning “middle”) Geographical and cultural region from central Mexico to northwestern Costa Rica; formerly called “Middle America” in the archaeological literature.
Mesolithic
(meso, meaning “middle,” and lith,
meaning “stone”) An early postglacial period
of hunter-gatherers, especially in northwestern Europe.
Mesopotamia
(meso, meaning “middle,” and
potamos, meaning “river”) Land between the
Tigris and Euphrates rivers, mostly included
in modern-day Iraq.
metabolism
The chemical processes
within cells that break down nutrients and
release energy for the body to use. (When
nutrients are broken down into their component parts, such as amino acids, energy
is released and made available for the cell
to use.)
Mexica
Original name by
which the Aztecs were known before their
rise to power.
microevolution
Small changes occurring
within species, such as a change in allele
frequencies.
middens
Archaeological sites or features
within sites formed largely by the accumulation of domestic waste
Middle Paleolithic
Cultural period that
began about 200,000 ya and ended around
40,000–30,000 ya. Roughly the same period
in sub- Saharan Africa is called the Middle
Stone Age.
Middle Pleistocene
The portion of the
Pleistocene epoch beginning 780,000 ya
and ending 125,000 ya.
millet
Small-grained cereal grasses native
to Asia and Africa.
milpa
Mesoamerican agricultural system of
intercropping in which maize, beans, squash
and other plants are planted together.
Milpas are typically prepared by cutting the
forest and bushes to create a small field,
farming it through several crop cycles, and
then letting it lie fallow for 8 to 10 years.
mineralization
The process in which
parts of animals (or some plants) become
transformed into stone-like structures.
Mineralization usually occurs very slowly
as water carrying minerals, such as silica
or iron, seeps into the tiny spaces within a bone. In some cases, the original minerals
within the bone or tooth can be completely
replaced, molecule by molecule, with other
minerals.
Mississippian
Referring to late prehistoric
chiefdoms of the southeastern United States
and southern Midwest between roughly
1,100 and 300 ya.
mitochondria
Structures contained within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
cells that convert energy, derived from nutrients, to a form that is used by the cell.
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
DNA found in
mitochondria. mtDNA is inherited only from
the mother.
mitosis
Simple cell division; the process by
which somatic cells divide to produce two
identical daughter cells.
Moche
Regional state, city, and
valley of the same name in northern Peru.
Mogollon
Prehistoric village
culture of northern Mexico and southern
Arizona/New Mexico.
Mohenjo-Daro
An early
Indus Valley city in south-central Pakistan.
molecule
A structure made up of two or
more atoms. Molecules can combine with
other molecules to form more complex
structures.
mosaic evolution
A pattern of evolution in which the rate of evolution in one
functional system varies from that in other
systems. For example, in hominin evolution,
the dental system, locomotor system, and
neurological system (especially the brain) all
evolved at markedly different rates.
Mousterian
A Middle Paleolithic stone tool
industry associated with Neandertals and
some modern H. sapiens groups.
multidisciplinary
Pertaining to research
that involves the cooperation of experts
from several scientific fields (i.e., disciplines).
mutation
A change in DNA. The term
can refer to changes in DNA bases as well as changes in chromosome number or
structure.
natal group
The group in which an animal
is born and raised. (Natal pertains to birth.)
Natufian
Referring to collector-type hunter gatherers who established sedentary
settlements in parts of the Near East after
12,000 ya.
natural selection
The most critical mechanism of evolutionary change, first articulated by Charles Darwin; refers to genetic
change in the frequencies of certain traits in
populations due to differential reproductive
success between individuals.
neocortex
The more recently evolved portion of the brain that is involved in higher
mental functions and composed of areas
that integrate incoming information from
different sensory organs.
Neolithic
(neo, meaning “new,” and lith,
meaning “stone”) New Stone Age; period of
farmers.
Neolithic revolution
Childe’s term for
the far-reaching consequences of food
production.
neural tube
In early embryonic development, the anatomical structure that
develops to form the brain and spinal cord.
nocturnal
Active during the night.
nuchal torus
(nucha, meaning
“neck”) A projection of bone in the back of
the cranium where neck muscles attach.
These muscles hold up the head.
nucleotides
Basic units of the DNA molecule, composed of a sugar, a phosphate unit,
and one of four DNA bases.
nucleus
A structure (organelle) found in all eukaryotic cells. The nucleus contains chromosomes (nuclear DNA).
oases
Permanent springs or
water holes in an arid region.
obligate bipedalism
Bipedalism as the
only form of hominin terrestrial locomotion.
Since major anatomical changes in the spine, pelvis, and lower limb are required
for bipedal locomotion, once hominins
adapted this mode of locomotion, other
forms of locomotion on the ground became
impossible.
olfaction
The sense of smell.
Olmec
Prehistoric chiefdom in the Gulf
Coast lowlands of Veracruz and Tabasco,
Mexico, between 3,200 and 2,400 ya.
omnivorous
Having a diet consisting of
many food types, such as plant materials,
meat, and insects.
optically stimulated luminescence
A new (and still developing) dating method
that estimates the amount of time that has
elapsed since grains of quartz or feldspar
were last exposed to daylight. Datable samples can be as small as a single grain.
osteology
The study of skeletal material. Human osteology focuses on the interpretation of the skeletal remains of past groups. Some of the same techniques are used in paleoanthropology to study early hominins.
Ounjougou
A site populated
by African hunter-gatherers who made early
use of wild cereal grasses on the southern
edge of the Sahara between 12,000 and
9,000 ya.
Paleo-Indian
(paleo, meaning “ancient”)
Referring to early hunter-gatherers who
occupied the Americas from about 13,500
to 10,000 ya.
paleoanthropology
The interdisciplinary
approach to the study of earlier hominins—
their chronology, physical structure, archaeological remains, habitats, etc.
paleomagnetism
Dating method using known shifts in the earth’s magnetic pole to estimate the age of magnetically charged minerals contained in certain kinds of archaeological features.
paleontologists
Scientists whose study
of ancient life-forms is based on fossilized
remains of extinct animals and plants.
paleopathology
The branch of osteology
that studies the traces of disease and injury
in human skeletal (or, occasionally, mummified) remains.
paleospecies
Species defined from fossil
evidence, often covering a long time span.
pandemic
An infectious disease epidemic
that spreads rapidly through a region,
potentially worldwide. A worldwide pandemic becomes much more likely if the
disease is “new” to humans (i.e., all populations are vulnerable), spreading quickly
owing to rapid means of intercontinental
transportation.
pathogens
Any agents, especially microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria, or fungi,
that infect a host and cause disease.
pharaoh
Title of the ruler of ancient Egypt.
phenotypes
The observable or detectable
physical characteristics of an organism; the
detectable expressions of genotypes.
phylogenetic tree
A chart showing evolutionary relationships as determined by
evolutionary systematics. It contains a
time component and implies ancestor descendant relationships.
phytoliths
(phyto, meaning “plant,” and lith,
meaning “stone”) Microscopic silica structures formed in the cells of many plants.
placental
A type (subclass) of mammal.
During the Cenozoic, placentals became the
most widespread and numerous mammals
and today are represented by upward of 20
orders, including the primates.
Plano
Great Plains bison-hunting culture of
11,000–9,000 ya, which employed narrow,
unfluted points.
plant macrofossils
Plant parts such as
seeds, nutshells, and stems that have been
preserved in the archaeological record and
are large enough to be clearly visible to the
naked eye.
plant microfossils
Small to microscopic
plant remains, most falling in a range of 10
to 100 micrometers (μm), or roughly the size of individual grains of wheat flour in the bag
from your grocer’s shelf
Pleistocene
The epoch of the Cenozoic
from 1.8 mya until 10,000 ya. Frequently
referred to as the Ice Age, this epoch is
associated with continental glaciations in
northern latitudes.
Plio-Pleistocene
Pertaining to the Pliocene
and first half of the Pleistocene, a time range
of 5–1 mya. For this time period, numerous
fossil hominins have been found in Africa.
polities
The political organizations of societies or groups.
pollen
Microscopic grains containing the
male gametes of seed-producing plants.
polyandry
A mating system wherein a
female continuously associates with more
than one male (usually two or three) with
whom she mates. Among nonhuman primates, polyandry is seen only in marmosets
and tamarins. It also occurs in a few human
societies.
polychrome
Many-colored.
polygenic
Referring to traits that are
influenced by genes at two or more loci.
Examples of such traits are stature, skin color,
and eye color. Many polygenic traits are also
influenced by environmental factors.
polygynous
Pertaining to polygyny, a
mating system in which males, and in some
cases females, have several mating partners.
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
A method
of producing copies of a DNA segment using
the enzyme DNA polymerase
polymorphisms
Loci with more than one
allele. Polymorphisms can be expressed in
the phenotype as the result of gene action
(as in ABO), or they can exist solely at the
DNA level within noncoding regions.
polytypic
Referring to species composed of
populations that differ in the expression
of one or more traits.
population
Within a species, a community
of individuals where mates are usually found
population genetics
The study of the
frequency of alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes in populations from a microevolutionary perspective.
postcranial
Referring to all or part of the
skeleton not including the skull. The term
originates from the fact that in quadrupeds,
the body is in back of the head; the term
literally means “behind the head.”
potassium-argon (K/Ar) method
Dating
technique based on accumulation of argon40 gas as a by-product of the radiometric
decay of potassium-40 in volcanic materials;
used especially for dating early hominin
sites in East Africa.
potlatch
Ceremonial feasting and giftgiving event among Northwest Coast
Indians.
prehistory
The several million years
between the emergence of bipedal hominins and the availability of written records.
prepared-core method
Pertaining to
stone cores that a toolmaker shapes into
a preplanned form before striking flakes
from it; enables predictable flake shape and
thickness; can be efficient in the use of raw
materials.
primates
Members of the mammalian
order Primates (pronounced “pry-may´-
tees”), which includes lemurs, lorises, tarsiers,
monkeys, apes, and humans.
primatology
The study of the biology and
behavior of nonhuman primates (prosimians,
monkeys, and apes).
principle of independent assortment
The
distribution of one pair of alleles into gametes does not influence the distribution of
another pair. The genes controlling different
traits are inherited independently of one
another.
principle of segregation
Genes (alleles) occur in pairs because chromosomes occur in pairs. During gamete production, the members of each gene pair separate, so that each gamete contains one member of each pair. During fertilization, the full number of chromosomes is restored, and members of gene pairs (alleles) are reunited.
principle of superpositioning
In a stratigraphic sequence, the lower layers were
deposited before the upper layers. Or, simply put, the stuff on top of a heap was put
there last.
protein synthesis
The assembly of chains
of amino acids into functional protein
molecules. The process is directed by DNA.
proteins
Three-dimensional molecules that
serve a wide variety of functions through
their ability to bind to other molecules.
Proto-Uto-Aztecan
Common ancestor of
Uto-Aztecan, a widespread family of Native
American languages found from the western United States to south-central Mexico.
protohominins
The earliest members of the
hominin lineage, as yet only poorly represented in the fossil record; thus, the reconstruction of their structure and behavior is
largely hypothetical.
public archaeology
A broad term that covers archaeological research conducted for
the public good as part of cultural resource
management and heritage management
programs; a major growth area of world
archaeology.
pueblos
Spanish for “town”; multiroom residence structures built by village farmers in
the American Southwest; when spelled with
an uppercase P, the several cultures that
built and lived in such villages.
Qin Shi Huangdi
First emperor of a unified China.
quadrupedal
Using all four limbs to support the body during locomotion; the
basic mammalian (and primate) form of
locomotion.
quantitatively
Pertaining to measurements
of quantity and including such properties as
size, number, and capacity.
quinoa
Seed-bearing member
of the genus Chenopodium, cultivated by
early Peruvians.
r-selected
Pertaining to r-selection, a reproductive strategy that emphasizes relatively
large numbers of offspring and reduced parental care compared with K-selected
species. K-selection and r-selection are relative terms; for example, mice are r-selected
compared with primates but K-selected
compared with fish.
rachis
The short stem by which an individual seed attaches to the main stalk of a
plant as it develops.
radiocarbon dating
Method for determining the age of organic archaeological
materials by measuring the decay of the
radioactive isotope of carbon, 14C; also
known as carbon-14 dating.
radiometric decay
A measure of the
rate at which certain radioactive isotopes
disintegrate.
recessive
Describing a trait that is not
expressed in heterozygotes; also refers to the
allele that governs the trait. For a recessive
allele to be expressed, there must be two
copies of the allele (i.e., the individual must
be homozygous).
recombination
The exchange of DNA
between paired chromosomes during
meiosis; also called crossing over.
regulatory genes
Genes that code for the
production of proteins that can influence the
action of other genes. Many are active only
during certain stages of development.
reproductive strategies
Behaviors or
behavioral complexes that have been
favored by natural selection to increase individual reproductive success. The behaviors
need not be deliberate, and they often vary
considerably between males and females.
reproductive success
The number of offspring an individual produces and rears to
reproductive age; an individual’s genetic
contribution to the next generation.
rhinarium
The moist,
hairless pad at the end of the nose seen in
most mammalian species. The rhinarium
enhances an animal’s ability to smell.
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
A molecule similar
in structure to DNA. Three different single stranded forms of RNA are essential to
protein synthesis.
sagittal crest
A ridge of bone that runs
down the middle of the cranium like a short
Mohawk. This serves as the attachment
for the large temporal muscles, indicating
strong chewing
science
A body of knowledge gained
through observation and experimentation;
from the Latin scientia, meaning “knowledge.
scientific method
An approach to research
whereby a problem is identified, a hypothesis
(or hypothetical explanation) is stated, and
that hypothesis is tested through the collection and analysis of data.
scientific testing
The precise repetition of
an experiment or expansion of observed
data to provide verification; the procedure by
which hypotheses and theories are verified,
modified, or discarded.
sedentary
Residing in a single location for
most or all of the year.
selective pressures
Factors in the environment that influence reproductive success in
individuals.
sensory modalities
Different forms of sensation (e.g., touch, pain, pressure, heat, cold,
vision, taste, hearing, and smell).
seriation
Relative dating method that
orders artifacts into a temporal series based
on their similar attributes or the frequency
of these attributes.
sex chromosomes
The X and Y chromosomes. The Y chromosome determines maleness; in its absence, an embryo develops as
a female.
sexual dimorphism
Differences in physical
characteristics between males and females
of the same species. For example, humans
are slightly sexually dimorphic for body size,
with males being taller, on average, than
females of the same population. Sexual
dimorphism is very pronounced in many
species, such as gorillas.
sexual selection
A type of natural selection
that operates on only one sex within a species. It’s the result of competition for mates,
and it can lead to sexual dimorphism with
regard to one or more traits.
shamanism
Traditional practices that mediate between the world of humans and the
world of spirits.
Shang
The first historic civilization in northern China; also called the Yin dynasty
shared derived
Relating to specific character traits shared in common between two
life-forms and considered the most useful
for making evolutionary interpretations
site survey
The process of discovering the
location of archaeological sites; sometimes
called site reconnaissance.
sites
Locations of past human activity, often
associated with artifacts and features.
slash-and-burn agriculture
A traditional
land-clearing practice involving the cutting and burning of trees and vegetation.
In many areas, fields are abandoned after a
few years and clearing occurs elsewhere.
social stratification
Class structure or hierarchy, usually based on political, economic,
or social standing
social structure
The composition, size, and
sex ratio of a group of animals. The social
structure of a species is, in part, the result of
natural selection in a specific habitat, and
it guides individual interactions and social
relationships.
society
A group of people who share a
common culture.
“soft hammer” percussion
A direct percussion method of making stone tools that
uses a resilient hammer or billet to gain
greater control over the length, width, and
thickness of flakes driven from a core
Solutrean
An Upper Paleolithic stone tool
industry in southwestern France and Spain
that dates to 21,000–18,000 ya.
somatic cells
Basically, all the cells in
the body except those involved with
reproduction.
sorghum
A cereal grass. Some subspecies
are grown for food grains, others for their
sweet, juicy stalk.
speciation
The process by which a new
species evolves from an earlier species.
Speciation is the most basic process in
macroevolution
species
A group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Members
of one species are reproductively isolated
from members of all other species (i.e., they
can’t mate with them to produce fertile
offspring).
spina bifida
A condition in which the arch
of one or more vertebrae fails to fuse and
form a protective barrier around the spinal
cord. This can lead to spinal cord damage
and paralysis.
starch grains
Subcellular structures that
form in all plant parts and can be classified
by family or genus; particularly abundant in
seeds and tubers.
state
A governmental entity that persists
by politically controlling a territory; examples include most modern nations.
stelae
Upright posts
or stones, often bearing inscriptions. codices
(sing., codex) Illustrated books.
stereoscopic vision
The condition whereby
visual images are, to varying degrees, superimposed. This provides for depth perception, or viewing the external environment
in three dimensions. Stereoscopic vision is
partly a function of structures in the brain.
stratigraphic
Pertaining to the depositional
levels, or strata, of an archaeological site.
stratigraphy
Study of the sequential layering of deposits.
stratum
A single layer of soil or
rock; sometimes called a level.
Strepsirhini
The primate
suborder that includes lemurs and lorises.
stress
In a physiological context, any factor
that acts to disrupt homeostasis; more precisely, the body’s response to any factor that
threatens its ability to maintain homeostasis.
Sumerians
Earliest civilization of
Mesopotamia.
surrogate
Substitute. In this case, the infant
monkeys were reared with artificial substitute mothers.
symbiosis
(syn, meaning “together,” and
bios, meaning “life”) Mutually advantageous
association of two different organisms; also
known as mutualism.
taphonomy
(taphos, meaning “grave”) The
study of how bones and other materials
came to be buried in the earth and preserved as fossils. A taphonomist studies the
processes of sedimentation, the action of
streams, preservation properties of bone,
and carnivore disturbance factors.
taro
Species of a tropical plant with an
edible starchy root.
taxonomy
The branch of science concerned with the rules of classifying
organisms on the basis of evolutionary
relationships.
Tenochtitlán
Aztec capital, built on the future site of
Mexico City.
Teotihuacán
Earliest city-state to dominate the Valley of
Mexico. It became one of the largest urban
centers in the New World up to the nineteenth century
territorial
Pertaining to the protection
of all or a part of the area occupied by an
animal or group of animals. Territorial behaviors range from scent marking to outright
attacks on intruders.
territorial state
A form of state political
organization with multiple administrative
centers and one or more capitals. The cities
tended to house the elite and administrative
classes, and food producers usually lived
and worked in the surrounding hinterland.
territories
Portions of an individual’s
or group’s home range that are actively
defended against intrusion, especially by
members of the same species.
theories
Well-substantiated explanations of
natural phenomena, supported by hypothesis testing and by evidence gathered over time. Theories also allow scientists to make
predictions about as yet unobserved phenomena. Some theories are so well established that no new evidence is likely to alter them substantially.
thermoluminescence (TL)
Technique for dating certain
archaeological materials, such as ceramics,
that release stored energy of radioactive
decay as light upon reheating.
till plains
Accumulations of stones,
boulders, mud, sand, and silt deposited by
glaciers as they melt; ground moraines
Tiwanaku
Regional
state, city, and valley of the same name near
Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia.
Toltecs
Central Mexican highlands people
who created a pre-Aztec empire with its
capital at Tula in the Valley of Mexico.
totem
An animal or being associated with
a kin-group and used for social identification; also, a carved pole representing
these beings.
transhumance
Seasonal migration from
one resource zone to another, especially
between highlands and lowlands.
transmutation
The change of one species to another. The term evolution did not
assume its current meaning until the late
nineteenth century
Tula
Toltec capital in the Valley of
Mexico; sometimes known as Tollan.
tundra
Treeless plains characterized by
permafrost conditions that support the
growth of shallow-rooted vegetation such
as grasses and mosses.
Tutankhamen
Egyptian
pharaoh of the New Kingdom period, who
died at age 19 in 1323 B.C.; informally known
today as King Tut.
Ubaid
Early formative culture of
Mesopotamia, 7,500–6,200 ya; predecessor
to Sumerian civilization
uniformitarianism
The theory that the
earth’s features are the result of long-term processes that continue to operate in the
present as they did in the past. Elaborated
on by Lyell, this theory opposed catastrophism and contributed strongly to the concept
of immense geological time.
Upper Paleolithic
Cultural period beginning roughly 40,000–30,000 ya and ending
about 10,000 ya and distinguished by major
technological innovations, the creation of
the earliest human art widely recognized
as such, and many other accomplishments.
Best known from western Europe; similar
industries are also known from central and
eastern Europe and Africa.
variation
In genetics, inherited differences
among individuals; the basis of all evolutionary change
vasoconstriction
Narrowing of blood
vessels to reduce blood flow to the skin.
Vasoconstriction is an involuntary response
to cold and reduces heat loss at the
skin’s surface.
vasodilation
Expansion of blood vessels,
permitting increased blood flow to the
skin. Vasodilation permits warming of the
skin and facilitates radiation of warmth
as a means of cooling. Vasodilation is an
involuntary response to warm temperatures,
various drugs, and even emotional states
(blushing).
vectors
Agents that transmit disease from
one carrier to another. Mosquitoes are vectors for malaria, just as fleas are vectors for
bubonic plague.
vertebrates
Animals with segmented, bony
spinal columns; includes fishes, amphibians,
reptiles (including birds), and mammals.
virulence
A measure of the severity of an
infectious disease. Generally, the more virulent a disease, the greater number of deaths
of infected people.
Wari
Regional state and city of
the same name in southern Peru.
Xia
Semilegendary kingdom, or
dynasty, of early China.
Younger Dryas
A stadial, or colder stage,
between roughly 13,000 and 11,500 ya. The
climate became colder and drier but did
not return to full glacial conditions in higher
latitudes
Zhou
Chinese dynasty that followed
Shang and ruled between 1122 and 221 B.C.
ziggurat
Late Sumerian mud-brick
temple-pyramid.
zoonotic
Pertaining to
a zoonosis (pl., zoonoses), a disease that’s
transmitted to humans through contact
with nonhuman animals.
zygote
A cell formed by the union of an egg
and a sperm cell. It contains the full complement of chromosomes (in humans, 46) and
has the potential to develop into an entire
organism.
