Definitions Flashcards
1
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Empirical methods
A
A way of knowing something by experience like intuition and common sense
2
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Non-empirical methods
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A way of knowing something with authority or logic
3
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Science
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An empirical way of knowing something based on objective observations
4
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Realism
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The philosophy that objects perceived have an existence outside the mind
5
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Rationality
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A view that reasoning is the basis for solving problems
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Regularity
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A belief that phenomena exist in recurring patterns that conform with universal laws
7
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Determinism
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The doctrine that all events happen because of preceding causes
8
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Validity
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An indication of accuracy in terms of how much a research conclusion corresponds with reality
9
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Internal validity
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The extent in which a study provides evidence of a cause-effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables
10
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Construct validity
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The extent in which the results support the theory behind the research
11
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External validity
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The extent in which the findings of an experiment generalize to other situations or populations
12
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Statistical conclusion validity
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The extent in which data are shown to be the result of cause-effect relationship rather than by accident
13
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History
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A threat to internal validity of outside events that may influence the subjects
14
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Maturation
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A threat to internal validity where subjects may change between repeated measures of the dependent variable due to passage of time
15
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Regression effects
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A threat to internal validity where the tendency of subjects with extreme scores on a first measure score closer to the mean in a second measure
16
Q
Selection
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A threat to internal validity/confound that can occur due to unequal distribution of subject-related variables such as sex or weight
17
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Mortality
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A threat to internal validity when some subjects drop out of an experiment before it is done
18
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Role demands
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Participants expectations of what an experiment requires them to do
19
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Subject bias
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When role demands interfere with the purpose of a study and elicit effects such as the good subject tendency
20
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Experimentor bias
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A threat to internal validity when an experimentor’s own bias can influence an experiment
21
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Control
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Any means used to rule out threats to validity
22
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Randomization
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An unbiased assignment process that gives each subject an equal and independent chance of being placed in every condition
23
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Matching
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A control procedure that ensures that experimental and control groups are equated on one or more variables before the experiment
24
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Statistical control
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A mathematical means of comparing subjects on paper when they cannot be equated as they exist in fact
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Non-experimental research
Research which does not involve the manipulation of an independent variable
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Correlational research
Non experimental research that measures two or more variables to determine the degree of relationship between them
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Reactive measures
The presence of the observer changes the behaviors of the people being observed
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Archival data
Factual information in existing records
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Content analysis
Evaluating the pictures and language in publicly available texts to evaluate a hypothesis
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Manifest content
The content of a text or photograph as indicated by measuring the frequency of some objective word, phrase, or action
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Latent content
The content of a text or photograph as measured by the appearance of themes as interpreted by the researcher
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Case study
An exploratory study of an existing situation as a means of creating and testing a hypothesis
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Population
All individuals of interest to the researcher
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Sample
A specific list of the individuals in the population of interest
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Sampling frame
A specific list of a certain number of the individuals in a population of interest
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Element
An individual member of a sampling frame
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Acquiescence
The tendency on a survey to agree with a statement on a questionnaire, regardless of its content
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Likert scale
A question that asks for a rating of the extent of agreement or disagreement with a statement; a rating scale
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Response or return rate
In survey research, the percentage of individuals in the sample who return the completed survey
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Simple random sampling
A group chosen from an entire population such that every member of the population has an equal and independent chance of being selected in a single sample
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Systematic sampling
A probability sample that is not randomly selected involving selecting elements from an ordered sampling frame
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Stratified sampling
The population is divided into strata, and random samples are drawn from each of these strata
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Cluster sampling
A group is selected by using clusters or groups from a larger population
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ABA design
A single subject research design that includes a baseline period, a treatment period, and a withdrawal of treatment period
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ABAB design
A single subject design Also called repeated treatments or replicated design: it is an ABA design with treatment repeated after the withdrawal phase
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Single-subject research
Experimental designs that involve a single subject focusing on an examination of behavior change in one person
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Baseline
The measure of behavior before treatment that establishes a reference point for evaluating the effect of treatment
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Treatment
Another word for a condition of an experiment
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Multiple-baseline design
A single subject research design that introduces different experimental manipulations to see if changes coincide with manipulation.
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Changing-criterion design
A single subject research design that introduces successively more stringent criteria for rewards to see if behavior change coincides with the changing reward criteria
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True experiment
An experiment that has complete control over all aspects including assignment of subjects to conditions and presentation of conditions to subjects
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Ex post facto design
A quasi experiment conducted after the groups have already been formed
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Factors
The independent variables of an experiment
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Level
A particular value of an independent variable which always has at least two levels
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Condition
A group or treatment in an experiment
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Between-subjects design
Also called within groups, where subjects are randomly assigned to each of the levels of the independent variable. So subjects can only belong to one level.
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Within subjects design
All participants are exposed to each level of the independent variable. Also called repeated measures design.
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Order effect
Changes in a subjects performance resulting from the position in which a condition appears in an experiment
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Sequence effects
Changes in a subjects performance resulting from interactions among the conditions themselves
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Block randomization
A control procedure where the order of conditions is randomized with each condition being presented once before any condition is repeated
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Counterbalancing
Controlling for order and sequence effects within subjects by arranging subjects to experience conditions in different orders
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Latin square
A incomplete counterbalancing technique to control for order effects in which each subject experiences each condition in a different order from other subjects
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Subject variables
Cases in which the independent variable is not manipulated by the researcher but rather represent intact group membership such as age or gender. They are the focus of quasi experiments
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Factorial design
Research design that involves all combinations of two or more factors
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Main effect
The effect of one independent variable averaged over all levels of another independent variable
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Interaction effect
When the effect of one independent variable depends on the levels of another independent variable
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Mixed design
Designs which contain at least one variable that is presented in a within-subjects fashion and one other variable that is presented in a between-subjects fashion
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Condition (factorial)
A single combination from all the combinations of factors
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Quasi experiments
Research procedure in which the scientist must select subjects for different conditions from pre-existing groups
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Non-equivalent control group design
A quasi experimental research design having both an experimental and a control group where subjects are not randomly assigned
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Repeated treatment designs
A quasi experimental research design in which a treatment is withdrawn then presented a second time
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Interrupted time-series design
A quasi experimental research design that allows the same group to be compared over time by considering the trend of the data before and after experimental manipulation
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Program evaluation
A set of techniques for determining the effectiveness of a social service program
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Summative evaluation
An evaluation of the quality of a project
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Formative evaluation
An evaluation of ways to improve a project while it is ongoing
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Cross-sectional study
In developmental research, a quasi study that tests different age groups at the same time
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Longitudinal study
In developmental research, a quasi study that tests individuals in a single cohort over the course of time
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Secular
Changes taking place in the general population over time
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Cross-sequential design
A quasi design used to help separate developmental, cohort, and secular effects
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Law
A statement that certain events are regularly associated with each other in an orderly way
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Theory
Statements explaining one or more laws, usually including one indirect concept to explain the relationship
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Hypothesis
A statement assumed to be true for the purpose of testing its validity
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Paradigm
A set of laws, theories, methods, and applications that form a scientific research tradition
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Variables
Aspect of a testing condition that can change or take on different conditions
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Dependent variable
A measure of the subjects behavior that reflects the independent variables effects
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Independent variable
The condition manipulated or selected by the experimentor to determine its effect on behavior
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Confounded variable
One whose effect cannot be separated from the supposed independent variable
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Reliability
The property of consistency of a measurement that gives the same result on different occasions
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Validity of measurement
The property of a measurement that tests what it is supposed to test
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Content validity
Idea that a test should sample the range of behavior represented by the theoretical concept being tested
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Criterion validity
Idea that a valid test should relate closely to other measures of the same theoretical construct
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Internal consistency
A type of reliability of measure, which concerns whether the various items on a test are measures of the same thing
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Ambiguous temporal precedence
A threat to validity when two variables are related but it isn’t clear which one is the cause and which is the effect
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Effects of testing
A threat to internal validity when performance on a second test is influenced by having taken a first test
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Repeated testing
A threat to internal validity where prior measurement of the dependent variable may affect the results obtained from subsequent measures
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Instrumentation
A threat to internal validity where the reliability of the instrument used to measure the dependent variable or manipulate the independent variable may change
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Pilot study
A small scale study done to pretest and modify a study design and procedures to increase the precision of the study
98
Survey
A method of gathering scientific information used to describe people’s thoughts, feelings, opinions, and attitudes on some issue. Also used to predict people’s behaviors using correlations and to dispel myths.
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Complete counterbalancing
A way to control for order and sequence effects both within and between subjects by making each condition occur an equal amount of times in each rank order position of a subject, and follows every other condition an equal number of times
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Ordinal
Arranging objects by name and magnitude
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Nominal
Arranging objects based on similarities
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Continuous variable
One that falls along a continuum and is not limited to a certain number of values
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Discrete variables
One that falls into separate bins with no intermediate values possible.
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Interval scale
Where the differences between numbers are meaningful and which include nominal and ordinal properties
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Ratio scale
A measure having a meaningful zero point that has nominal, ordinal, and interval properties
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Test-retest reliability
Concerns whether the same measure would yield the same result on a different occasion
