Defining Religion and Religious Organisations

Question 1

Giddens - establish what religion is not

Answer 1

Giddens rejects the idea that religions will necessarily explain the origins of life, provide a moral code to live by, or even believe in the supernatural

Question 2

Weber

Answer 2

Defines religion as belief in a superior or supernatural power that is above nature and cannot be explained scientifically

Question 3

Durkheim

Answer 3

Defines religion in terms of the contribution it makes to social integration, rather than any specific belief in God or the supernatural

Question 4

Yinger

Answer 4

Identifies functions that religion preforms for individuals, such as answering ultimate questions about the meaning of life and what happens when we die

Question 5

Aldridge

Answer 5

Shows how, for its followers, scientology is a religion, whereas several governments have denied it legal status as a religion

Question 6

Southwald

Answer 6

Suggests the following;
There is usually a faith in power outside us (a God)
There is usually a theology - a body of knowledge that sets out the beliefs which might be encapsulated in sacred books
Theology and faith usually provide people with a ‘universe of meaning’
Provides an ethical or moral code that underpins all behaviour and decision making
Usually sanctions in the form of rewards and punishments (heaven and hell)
Often a promise of salvation from the ordinary world
Belief and dependency are often expressed in religious rituals or rites of passage in which the sacred or holy is worshipped and asked for
Those united in belief and faith usually form a single moral community

Question 7

Totemism

Answer 7

Religions normally associated with small-scale tribal societies and cultures where religious rituals and ceremonies are usually organised around a particular totem

Question 8

Animism

Answer 8

Religions believe in ghosts and spirits, which may be forces for good or evil

Question 9

Theism

Answer 9

Centre around a belief in a sacred higher power which has the power of control over human behaviour. This power is the source of moral codes and attracts great reverence from its followers

Question 10

Monotheistic meaning

Answer 10

Believe in one divine power or God

Question 11

Polytheistic meaning

Answer 11

Believe in several Gods

Question 12

Troeltsch

Answer 12

Distinguished between two main types; churches and sects, which he saw as opposites

Question 13

Niebuhr

Answer 13

Described denominations as a midway between churches and sects

Question 14

Weber and Troeltsch; eight social characteristics of a church

Answer 14

1. Large membership
2. Inclusiveness
3. Universal
4. Bureaucratic
5. Professional clergy
6. Acceptance of wider society
7. Social functions
8. A monopoly of the truth

Question 15

Bruce

Answer 15

Believes that the above definition of churches was appropriate in pre-modern Christian societies. However, he points out that since 1517, when people began to question the teachings of the medieval church, there have been competing Christian institutions, which have led to religious pluralism.

Question 16

Rejections to Troeltsch definition

Answer 16

Many churches do not have much of the population as active members
Churches are not always tied to the state and can even be opposed to it
Churches are not always ideologically conservative
Most churches do not claim monopoly of the religious truth but tolerate the existence of other religions

Question 17

Davie

Answer 17

Claims there are growing numbers of radical bishops in the CoE

Question 18

Niebuhr

Answer 18

Argued that a different type of religious organisation needed to be distinguished, and classified denominations using the following characteristics;
A large, inclusive membership
Not universal
A paid bureaucracy
A professional clergy
An acceptance of wider society
Acceptance of religious diversity
No monopoly of the truth
A high level of commitment from members is not expected

Question 19

Weber and Troeltsch; sects

Answer 19

Agree the sects are opposite to churches, as can be seen in the following list of characteristics;
A charismatic leader/founder
A small membership
An exclusive membership
Opposition to wider society
Total commitments
No professional clergy or bureaucracy
Claim monopoly of the truth

Question 20

Wilson

Answer 20

Argued that sects develop and change, they are not static entities but are diverse and complex. He identified different types of sects.

Question 21

Wilson’s Introversionist Sects

Answer 21

Believe that ‘God calls us to abandon the world’. They suggest that the chosen people must cut themselves off from the secular world and follow a spiritual way of life.

Question 22

Wilson’s Reformist Sects

Answer 22

Believe that their role is to gradually change the world for the better using spiritual means and good deeds e.g. Quakers

Question 23

Wilson’s Conversionist Sects

Answer 23

Are evangelical sects whose members crusade to save souls who are in danger of eternal damnations. They hold meetings and constantly seek to convert new supporters e.g. Jehovah’s Witnesses, the moonies, mormons

Question 24

Bruce

Answer 24

Argues that both churches and sects have drifted towards the characteristics of a denomination. Churches can no longer claim a monopoly on religious truth and are no longer universal; they are therefore increasingly like denominations.

Question 25

Aldridge

Answer 25

Argues that groups such as the Church of the Latter-Day Saints (mormons) have an ambiguous position. In the USA, they are seen as just one amongst many denominations, but in the UK, they are viewed as more deviant and therefore regarded more like a sect

Question 26

Stark and Bainbridge

Answer 26

Offer an alternative definition of cults in that they are novel for a particular society. They have not broken away from an existing religion but have either devised a completely new set of beliefs or imported beliefs or religious tradition from outside that society.

Question 27

Stark and Bainbridge

Answer 27

Are critical of all typologies, arguing that there are always overlaps between categories. Instead, they rank organisations in terms of their degree of tension with society, ranging from churches at one end to cults at the other extreme.

Question 28

Wallis

Answer 28

Highlights two characteristics that sum up the similarities and differences between religious organisations;
How they see themselves
How they are seen by wider society

Question 29

Wallis; New Religious Movements

Answer 29

Categorises NRMs into three groups based on their relationship to the outside world;
World-rejecting NRMs e.g. the Moonies
World-accommodating NRMs e.g. the New Evangelical Movement
World-affirming NRMs e.g. Human Potential Movement

Question 30

Wallis NRMs Criticism

Answer 30

Wallis accepts that some organisations don’t fit neatly into his typology

Question 31

Beckford

Answer 31

Argues that the categories in Wallis’ scheme are hard to apply because it is not clear whether the teaching of the movement of the beliefs of individual members are important. He also argues that Wallis does not take account of the diversity of views that often exist withing a single organisation.

Question 32

Stark and Bainbridge

Answer 32

Critical of all typologies, arguing that there are always overlaps between categories. Instead they rank organisations in terms of their degree of tensions with society, ranging from churches at one end to cults at the other extreme.

Question 33

Barker

Answer 33

Suggests the most NRMs share the following characteristics;
1. As members are converts, they tend to be more enthusiastic and active that those born into a religion
2. Likely to appeal to atypical sample of the population- usually younger and often from a M/C background
3. Usually led by a founder accorded to a charismatic status by the followers. The leader is then unrestricted by rules of traditions
4. Many NRMs have relatively dichotomous world views that draw a sharp distinction between good and bad
5. Tensions are likely to arise between the groups and wider society
6. NRMs change far more rapidly and radically than older, more established religions.
7. Many NRMs have been or will be relatively short-lived.

Question 34

Bruce

Answer 34

Argues that it was the failure of the counterculture to change the world that led to disillusioned youth turning to religion instead.

Question 35

Niebuhr

Answer 35

Argued that sects are world-rejecting organisations that come into existence by splitting from and existing church. Within a generation, they either die out or compromise with the world, abandoning their extreme ideas, and become a denomination.

Question 36

Stark and Bainbridge; cycle of religious organisations

Answer 36

1. Deprived members split from a church to form a world-rejecting sect
2. Initial fervour and charismatic leadership, with great tensions with wider society
3. Denomenationalism, the coolness of the second generation means the fervour disappears
4. Establishment as the sect becomes world-accepting and tension with wider society reduces
5. Further schism results when more zealous or less privileged members break away to find a new sect true to the original message

Question 37

Wilson; established sects

Answer 37

Argues that not all sects follow this pattern - it depends on how the secs answers the question ‘what shall we do to be saved?’

Question 38

Heelas; NAMs are generally opposed to trad science

Answer 38

Claims some people have lost faith in science and are looking to more ancient and spiritual ideas to discover a more authentic self

Question 39

Heelas; NACults stress importance of self

Answer 39

Calls these groups self-religions because they talk about human potential for self-improvement. Salvation or spiritual fulfilment comes from discovering and perfecting yourself

Question 40

Heelas and Woodhead; evidence for growth of NAMs

Answer 40

Had a theory that traditional religion was declining and being replaced by New Age spirituality such as crystal healing, aromatherapy, self-help books etc. They carried out research in Cumbria ‘Kendal Project’

Question 41

Bruce; explanations for rise in NAM

Answer 41

Suggests NAMs have become popular for several reasons;
1. Increased interest in spirituality and human potential
2. Provide a spiritual component in an increasingly rationalised world
3. Provide techniques and knowledge which allow people to work on themselves
4. Provide techniques and knowledge to help people become wealthy, power and successful
5. Traditional religion has gone into decline
6. Consumer culture encourages people to try to become the perfect person