Define the Concepts

Question 1

Arachnoid membrane

Answer 1

the meninx located between the dura mater and the pia mater; spongy and weblike, forms a subarachnoid space; cerebrospinal fluid flows from the brain ventricles into the subarachnoid space surrounding the entire brain and spinal cord

Question 2

astrocytes

Answer 2

large, star-shaped glial cells that play multiple roles in the CNS; forms a layer in the blood-brain barrier; involved in synaptogenesis (formation of new synapses); class of glia cell; extensions cover the blood vessels that course through the brain and also make contact with other neurons
**involved in scaffolding, immune response, relate interstitial fluid (homeostasis), they prevent large  chemicals from leaving the blood vessels and entering the brain, clear out synapses

Question 3

Blood-brain barrier

Answer 3

barrier that limits the passage of substances from the bloodstream to neurons and protects the brain from toxins and unwanted substances; composed of tight epithelial cells of the blood capillaries and a layer of glial cells

Question 4

central canal

Answer 4

a part (almost center) of the spinal cord that allows cerebrospinal fluid to go through the entire spinal cord; runs the length of the spinal cord

Question 5

Choroid plexi

Answer 5

plexi of cells that produce CSF; specialized regions attached to the walls of the ventricles; their tissue is quite similar to kidney tissue, with capillaries and transporting epithelium–glial lining of the ventricles; the networks of capillaries that protrude into the ventricles from the pia mater and produce CSF

Question 6

dorsal horns

Answer 6

the two dorsal arms of the spinal gray matter; shaped like half of a butterfly; sensory neurons

Question 7

Microglia

Answer 7

glial cells that respond to injury or disease by engulfing cellular debris and triggering inflammatory responses; act like microphages; look for dead, damaged, or foreign cells; it also eats debris and is involved in antigen presentation

Question 8

meninges

Answer 8

three layers that protect and stabilize the brain (and spinal cord): dura mater, arachnoid membrane, pia mater

Question 9

Schwann cells

Answer 9

Type of glial cells that make up the myelin sheath outside of the brain (PNS); oligodendrocytes do this in CNS

Question 10

subarachnoid space

Answer 10

the space beneath the arachnoid membrane, which contains many large blood vessels and CSF

Question 11

Cerebellum

Answer 11

a mesencephalic structure that participates in the storage of memories of learned sensorimotor skills, and is involved with muscle tonus, posture, and coordination

Question 12

myelin sheath

Answer 12

coverings on the axons of some neurons that are rich in myelin and increase the speed and efficiency of axonal conduction; done by either Schwann cells or Oligodendrocytes

Question 13

Hydrophobic

Answer 13

afraid of water; lipid bilayer of cells are composed of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails. Hydrophobic cell membranes prevent water molecules from entering or exiting cells. As seen in the blood brain barrier and cell membranes

Question 14

irritability

Answer 14

response to stimuli; one of the two important functional characteristics of neurons (along with conductivity); (neural conduction) – response to a stimulus by converting it into a nerve impulse

Question 15

Conductivity

Answer 15

synaptic transmission; one of the two important functional characteristics of neurons (along with irritability); the transmission of the nerve impulse to another neuron; an electrochemical event; ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles, and glands

Question 16

Reticular Activating System

Answer 16

part of the brain stem; related to muscle tonicity; the hypothetical arousal system in the reticular formation; (involved in arousal, sleep, muscle tonus, stretch reflexes, and coordination of various involuntary processes such as breathing, blood pressure regulation, pain modulation), is also located the brain stem; part of the myelencephalon; seems to play a part in arousal (also in sleep, attention, movement, maintenence of muscle tone, and various cardiac, circulatory, and respiratory flexes)

Question 17

Autoreceptor

Answer 17

presynaptic receptors; quality control, like policing receptors; can help activate homeostatic processes to maintain balance in the synapse; a type of metabotropic receptor located on the presynaptic membrane (unique) that bind to their neuron’s own neurotransmitters; monitor the number of neurotransmitter molecules in the synapse, to reduce subsequent release when the levels are high, and to increase subsequent release when they are low

Question 18

enzymatic degradation

Answer 18

the breakdown of chemicals by enzymes; one of the two mechanisms for deactivating released neurotransmitters; can happen before or after reuptake

Question 19

Exocytosis

Answer 19

when stimulated by action potentials, channels open and Ca2+ ions enter, the entry of these ions cause synaptic vesicles to fuse with presynaptic membrane and their contents to empty into the synaptic cleft; calcium ions mobilize synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitter molecules to fuse with the presynaptic membrane to open and pour these molecules into the synaptic cleft; the process of released a neurotransmitter;

Question 20

reuptake

Answer 20

the drawing back into the terminal button of neurotransmitter molecules after their release into the synapse; the most common mechanism for deactivating a released neurotransmitter (in contrast to enzymatic degradation)

Question 21

Interoceptive system

Answer 21

response to body conditions like temperature and blood pressure; a part of the somatosensory system (1. exteroceptive system 2. proprioceptive system 3. this)

Question 22

reflex arc

Answer 22

decisions for reflex actions are often made unconsciously; certain types of threatening stimuli cause a swift motor response. Rather than sending the signal up to the CNS, the signal comes into the dorsal root ganglia and sends a motor signal out the ventral root.

1. Arrival of stimulus and activation of receptor (pin prick)
2. Activation of sensory neuron (sends message to dorsal root ganglion/spinal chord)
3. Information processing in CNS (loops from dorsal root ganglion straight to ventral root–side message is relayed to the brain)
4. Activation of motor neuron (neural impulse reaches muscle)
5. Response by effector (pulls hand away)

Question 23

Synaptic vesicle

Answer 23

small spherical membrane that stores neurotransmitter molecules and release them into the synaptic cleft

Question 24

Ciliary muscles

Answer 24

the eye muscles that control the shape of the lenses

Question 25

Intrinsic muscles

Answer 25

Muscles that are involuntary. Not voluntarily controlled by the cortex

Question 26

optic chiasm

Answer 26

the point where the two optic nerves decussate; the X-shaped structure on the inferior surface of the diencephalon

Question 27

Proprioceptive system

Answer 27

one of the three systems in the somatosensory system; responsive to body position; (1. exteroceptive system 2. this 3. Interoceptive system)

Question 28

cauda equina

Answer 28

collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end of the vertebral canal

Question 29

Mitochondria

Answer 29

an organelle in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur - powerhouse of the cell

Question 30

ATP

Answer 30

fuel, energy; movement is regulated by the plasma membrane bilayer

Question 31

Neuroplasticiy

Answer 31

the ability of the brain to form and reorganize synaptic connections, especially in response to learning or experience or following injury; one of the most important consequences of body-environment interactions

Question 32

radial glia

Answer 32

migratory cells that climb the axon and then resume the structure of an astrocyte; glial cells that exist in the neural tube during the period of neural migration and that form a network along which radial migration occurs; some radial glial cells are stem cells; guiding newborn neurons during development

Question 33

Homeostasis

Answer 33

the body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions, in spite of continuously changing external environments; not an unchanging state nor equilibrium, but a dynamic steady state; a relatively stable disequilibrium

Question 34

oligodendrocytes

Answer 34

the glial cells that make up the myelin sheath inside the brain; glial cells that myelinate axons of the central nervous system (CNS)

Question 35

Interstitial fluid

Answer 35

a salty water solution derived from blood that surrounds cells in the body

Question 36

melatonin

Answer 36

hormone that is synthesized from serotonin in the pineal gland and is both a soporific and a chronobiotic; secreted by the pineal gland

Question 37

Teleological approach

Answer 37

the nervous system’s main function is the continuous adaptation of the entire organism to the ever-changing environment; in order for the organisms to be healthy/functional, we need to have a constant interaction with the environment; the study of functions or the “why” things work in a particular way, with an eye to the adaptive significance of a particular organismic processes

approach* to physiology – the study of functions or the “why” things work in a particular way, with an eye to the adaptive significance of a particular organismic process (e.g. to avoid dehydration in a hostile condition, the body has specific mechanisms to allow kidneys to produce concentrated urine and conserve body liquids).

Question 38

transporter

Answer 38

Proteins that transport substances across membranes can include ions such as sodium and potassium; sugars and glucose; proteins and messenger molecules. – 1st definition that was added: mechanism in the membrane of a cell that actively transport ions or molecules across the membrane.

Question 39

Integrative physiology

Answer 39

a particular focus of physiology that is the study of integration of functions across multiple levels of organization; levels of organization vary from the molecular level to ecosystems and biosphere, from atoms to the way inhabitants of specific species cohabit ecosystems and the biosphere; looks at the big picture and how different levels of organization interact (e.g., homeostasis, organisms need energy, evolution)

Question 40

intracellular fluid

Answer 40

fluid within the cells; high in potassium and low in sodium

Question 41

Insula

Answer 41

located deep in the lateral sulcus; vestibular, gustatory (taste, smell) and visceral cortical center; extremely important to a sense of well-being–engaging in mindfulness or meditation is most likely engaging your insula; has direct connection to your limbic system

Question 42

area postrema

Answer 42

a paired structure in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem; a circumventricular organ having permeable capillaries and sensory neurons that enable its dual role to detect circulating chemical messengers in the blood and transduce them into neural signals and networks; induces vomiting; part of the brain not protected by the blood-brain barrier

Question 43

Emergent properties

Answer 43

characteristics gained when an organism becomes part of a bigger system; the human body has emergent properties that cannot be predicted to exist by knowing system’s parts resulting from nonlinear interactions of system’s parts (e.g. intelligence, emotions, etc.); properties that are not an individual property of the organism, but a property of the organism interacting with the environment

Question 44

translational research

Answer 44

the application of integrated mechanisms and functions; the application of basic biomedical research to life issues (e.g. insights from drug suppression food intake in rodents was later translated in the treatment of diabetes)

Question 45

Epigenetics

Answer 45

the interaction of genes with their environment that brings their phenotype into being; genes are not the blueprints of heredity and evolution, they are templates to be used by systems

Question 46

cerebrospinal fluid

Answer 46

salty, very similar constitution to blood plasma without red blood cells and very little protein; secreted by choroid plexi; flows from the ventricles into the subarachnoid space surrounding the entire brain and spinal cord; provides the CNS with both physical (padding and buoyancy) and chemical (regulated extracellular liquid environment, allowing for efficient waste removal) protection; the lateral ventricles generate most of the CSF

Question 47

Myotome

Answer 47

group of muscles innervated from a single spinal motor nerve or a particular ventral root

Question 48

Enteric Nervous System

Answer 48

everything related to the gut; functions almost autonomously, but can be modified by the PNS and the SNS; controls motility and secretions of the gastrointestinal tract; has over 100 million neurons; contains many neurotransmitters, such as 5-HT, Substance P, VIP and CGRP; the vagus is a significant link to the ENS

Question 49

Postsynaptic receptor

Answer 49

a receptor that is located on the cell membrane or in the interior of a postsynaptic neuron; interaction with an effector substance (e.g., a neurotransmitter), released either by the presynaptic neuron or from another site, initiates a chain of biochemical events contributing, for example, to excitation or inhibition of the postsynaptic neuron