D602 - Ch1 - Signs of Deception

Question 1

Is there a clear and comprehensive list of irrefutable behavioral indicators of lying?

Answer 1

To detect deception, all factors, the context in which it occurs, plus the relationship between deception and certain psychological processes, can manifest themselves in those observable behaviors.

Question 2

What motivated the development of SAVE (in terms of deception detection)?

Answer 2

The need for integration that allows us to detect and demonstrate deception.

S - System for
A - Analysis of
V - Validity in
E - Evaluation

Question 3

What does the multidisciplinary approach to nonverbal behavior include?

Answer 3

• Psychology
• Psychiatry
• Anthropology
• Sociology
• Ethology
• Linguistics

Question 4

Define: Psychology

Answer 4

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. Psychologists actively study and understand mental processes, brain functions, and behavior.

Question 5

Define: Psychiatry

Answer 5

Psychiatry is the branch of medicine concerned with studying, diagnosing, and treating mental illness.

Question 6

Define: Anthropology

Answer 6

The study of human societies and cultures and their development.

“they examine lesser-known findings in archaeology and anthropology to highlight all that we don’t know about human history”

The study of human biological and physiological characteristics and their evolution.

“I really loved psychology and anthropology and studying primate behaviour and cognition”

Question 7

Define: Sociology

Answer 7

Sociology studies social life, social change, and human behavior’s social causes and consequences. Sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations, and societies and how people interact within these contexts.

Question 8

Define: Ethology

Answer 8

Ethology is the science of animal behavior.
The study of human behavior and social organization from a biological perspective.

Question 9

Define: Linguistics

Answer 9

Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Its focus is the systematic investigation of the properties of particular languages and the characteristics of language in general.

Question 10

List the Expressive Channels.

Answer 10

1. Gestures
2. Paralanguage
3. Oculesics
4. Facial Expressions
5. Body position/orientation
6. Proxemics
7. Haptics
8. Emotional Prosody

Question 11

What is the meaning of Kinesics?

Answer 11

Kinesics, from the Greek kinesis (movement),
refers to the science that studies body movements and gestures.

Question 12

How did Poyatos (1994) structure the human communicative process?

Answer 12

According to:
1. Verbal language
2. Paralanguage and
3. Kinesics.

Question 13

What functions can hands perform that might tie into deceit detection?

Answer 13

Multitude of subcategories of hand gestures - if assessed as whole could discriminate between deceivers and truth tellers.

Perform CONSCIOUS gestures (voluntary and autonomous) and UNCONSCIOUS gestures.

Question 14

How are hand gestures classified?

Answer 14

According to purpose.

1. Related to VERBAL Message: illustrators participating in its exposition and emblems substituting it.
2. Related to an EMOTION: modulators that allow to adapt, exaggerate, manipulate, or neutralize. Also, those who fake it to evaluate or deceive others.

Question 15

How does Ekman and Friesen classify kinesics?

Answer 15

Ekman and Friesen (1969) classified kinesic behavior into four broad categories: (1) emblems, (2) illustrators, (3) affect displays, and (4) regulators.

Question 16

What are the five categories of movement and gestures identified by Ekman and Friesen?

Answer 16

Researchers Ekman and Friesen established five basic purposes that this kind of movement serve: Emblems, Illustrators, Affect Displays, Regulators, and Adaptors.

Question 17

Explain EMBLEMS

Answer 17

Emblems are conventionalized movements of the hands, head, and body that are understood by most members of one culture (or subculture), but not necessarily another (Efron, 1941;Ekman, 1972;Kendon, 1997;Kita, 2009; Matsumoto and Hwang, 2013)

Emblems, a term first used by researcher David Efron, describe gestures that have very precise meanings within an ethnic, cultural, or sub-cultural group. They are used as deliberately and consciously as spoken words and are unique in that they can be used in conjunction with or in place of words.

Examples of emblem gestures
Emblems are most frequently expressed with the hands, though they can also be communicated through the head, shoulders, and face.

Question 18

Explain the meaning of ILLUSTRATOR gestures.

Answer 18

Illustrator gestures are what some people may refer to colloquially as “talking with your hands,” as they “illustrate” what we are saying. Illustrators occur during speech as it is spoken.

Illustrators occur during speech as it is spoken. They are used to provide emphasis, to make an action the speech is describing, to trace the flow of thought, to show spatial relationships, or to draw a picture in the air.

Question 19

What does ‘affect displays’ mean or convey?

Answer 19

Affect displays are the verbal and non-verbal displays of affect (emotion). These displays can be through facial expressions, gestures and body language, volume and tone of voice, laughing, crying, etc.

Question 20

What are manipulative gestures?

Answer 20

Manipulator gestures are movements in which one body part “manipulates” or interacts with another part of the body (i.e., one part of the body grooms, massages, rubs, holds, pinches, picks, scratches, etc., another body part).

What do manipulator gestures look like?
Typically, the hand is the manipulator, though it may also be the recipient, as can other body parts such as the hair, ears, and nose. Manipulators can also be performed within the face. In addition to the body, props may become part of a manipulator act, like twirling a pencil or bending a paperclip.

Question 21

What do regulators mean when referring to gestures?

Answer 21

Regulators are nonverbal messages that accompany speech and control or regulate what the speaker is saying.

They might include nodding the head to indicate you are listening or understanding something, for instance, and encouraging the speaker to continue.

Question 22

Define EMBLEMS as gestures.

Answer 22

Emblems are gestures with their own meaning that most people of the same culture understand.

Used consciously and voluntarily to send messages to recipients close to them.

Can be defensive, offensive, informative, etc.

Question 23

What is an EMBLEMATIC SLIP?

Answer 23

The manifestation of an emblem unconsciously or involuntarily - the result of the presence of strong emotion.

Same meaning as emblem.

It can involve hands, head, facial expression, or posture.

Question 24

Example of emblematic slip.

Answer 24

Famous middle finger or the horns are two of the most universal emblems that are used to insult and that frequently appear in the form of an emblematic slip in certain individuals who express them unconsciously due to the emotion they experience and of which they are aware.

Context is important - as could mean nothing at all.

Likewise, the gesture of nodding the head when verbally denying or denying the
head when affirming with the voice.

Question 25

Explain how an emblematic slip can indicate deceit.

Answer 25

The gesture of nodding the head when verbally denying or denying the
head when affirming with the voice.

Question 26

How can a body movement be a partial emblem, but an emblematic slip?

Answer 26

Body movement is an emblematic slip and
not an emblem if it is performed partially, but only if a part of the emblem is executed.

For example, shrugging the shoulders usually manifests itself as an emblematic slip in an ephemeral (quick, short) way with the classic shoulder stretch, i.e., meaning only one goes up while the individual claims
to be sure of what he is saying.

Ekman found that these emblematic slips usually remain outside the main visual field of the person who executes them.

Question 27

Explain illustrators as gestures.

Answer 27

Are easily understood gestures and linked to the idiosyncrasy of each individual.

Lack their own message, need accompanied and reinforced verbalization (Ekman & Friesen, 1969).

Dependent on character, subject and context.

Appear less frequently when lying.

Question 28

What is known about illustrators and deceit?

(Ekman and Friesen, 1972; Zuckerman et al., 1981).

Answer 28

Appear less when lying, except with skilled liars, may increase.

General rule: a message delivered in congruent way in line with verbal message, use more illustrators when charged with emotion.

Illustrative gestures diminish when an individual lies, is bored, tired, and treats the subject with indifference or caution.

If lying is the intention - it needs to combine false messages with emotions and false illustrators. Faced with insufficient cognitive resources to maintain and usually discard illustrators in favor of false messages and emotions

Question 29

How do illustrators differ between truth -and lie-tellers?

Caso et al. (2006)

Answer 29

Truth-telling individuals used more pointer-illustrators (used to point and/
or accuse, threaten, indicate, or be on the same page with someone) to refer to an object.

Liars used more ideographic gestures (used to describe abstract ideas), such as a clenched fist, to express force.

Question 30

When is Illustrators indicative of deception?

Answer 30

Illustrative gestures should be consistent with verbal and nonverbal communication of the subject and should be symmetrical.

Deceit suspected when not coordinated with body or manifested asymmetrically.

Example - individual pointing finger in the opposite direction to body and gaze orientation and direction.

Question 31

Explain how Modulating gestures links to emotions.

Answer 31

Modulating gestures are linked to emotions. Process of adapting or changing gestures to conceal or reveal an emotion.

• Are voluntary (conscious) and autonomous (unconscious) movements of some parts of the body that seek to modify the gesture or facial expression that provokes an emotion to adjust it (exaggerate it, attenuate it, or adapt it) to what we want to transmit at that moment, but which come to light because they are not harmonized with the real emotion.
• Speakers modulate their gesture production in various ways, including for the purposes of audience or recipient design. Gestures occur at a higher rate and are larger in a telephone dialogue than in a monologue to a tape recorder (Bavelas, Gerwing, Sutton, & Prevost, 2008).

Question 32

Name the types of Modulators.

Answer 32

1. Neutralizers.
2. Adaptors.
3. Manipulators.
4. Tricksters.

Question 33

Explain Neutralizers (a gesture modulator)

Answer 33

Neutralizers are gestures and movements opposite to those provoked by an emotion one tries to conceal (Ekman & Friesen, 2003).

• Can be conscious or unconscious,
  voluntary or autonomous.
• Always seek to prevent the gesture or facial pressure that provokes an emotion from being present.
• For example, when an individual is angry, the effect of this emotion on the oral (usually by compressing the lips) and ocular (usually with tension in the eyelids) areas can be neutralized by smiling and lowering the upper eyelids. However, the tension
  in the muscles surrounding the mouth, and its combination with the lowering of the eyelids shows the falsity of this happiness.

Question 34

Explain how adapters are used to modulate gestures.

Answer 34

Refers to the slight, conscious, involuntary, repetitive movements an individual displays
to counteract discomfort or nervousness experienced and to mitigate the tension provoked by certain people, issues, and/or contexts (Vrij, & Mann, 2006; Koller, Wetter & Hofer, 2015a;
Burgoon, Schuetzler & Wilson, 2015).

For example, moving hair away from the face, adjusting the knot of the tie, and playing with a pen or other object are some of these movements.

Question 35

Which adaptive behaviours are possible indicators of deception?

Answer 35

• model by Zuckerman et al. (1981), adaptive
  behaviors, such as scratching or fidgeting with an object (Ekman & Friesen, 1969) are possible behavioral indicators of deception.
• No relevant relationship with lying has been found except for an increase in the use of object adapters when lying and a decrease in proprioceptive (natural) ones (Koller et al., 2015a).

Question 36

Meaning of Object Adaptors.

Answer 36

Object adaptors are the movements that involve something other than our own body—glasses, clothes or other accessories. These gestures can be triggered privately—by our own thoughts—or by someone else. Some examples are: Putting glasses on and taking them off. Pulling on our pants or shirt.

Question 37

What is the meaning of proprioception?

Answer 37

The sense of proprioception allows us to keep track of our limb posture and movements and the sense of touch provides us with information about objects with which we come into contact. In both senses, mechanoreceptors convert the deformation of tissues—skin, muscles, tendons, ligaments, or joints—into neural signals.

Question 38

According to Vrij (2000), what is SELF-MANIPULATORS?

Answer 38

Gestures that seek to mask a microexpression (unexpected, autonomous, and fleeting).

• Arise from the unconscious, but once they occur, the individual is aware of their presence.

EXAMPLE: Say something offensive and automatically (microexpression) move the hand to cover the mouth. Manipulator gestures mask the microexpression by reconverting it into a compatible and habitual gesture, such as touching the hair, the ear, or the nose or scratching the face, the eye, the head, or the neck.

Question 39

Are manipulators that aim to mask microexpressions always indicative of deceit?

Answer 39

No—but if the person says he did not steal the bike while making a masking gesture to cover a microexpression, more likely indicative of deceit than an itch.

Question 40

Define PARALANGUAGE or PROSODY according to Joanette et al. (2008)

Answer 40

Prosody or paralanguage is defined as the component of language that refers to the cognitive processing necessary to understand and express communicative intentions through suprasegmental
aspects of speech, such as pauses, intonation, variations, and modulations of vocal intensity.

Question 41

Who alluded to prosody first in behavioral science research?

Answer 41

Darwin - 1872 - described how emotion affects the voice.

Question 42

How is emotional prosody related to communication?

Answer 42

Emotional prosody is related to the communication of emotions, and through it, emotional content is introduced in the message.

Question 43

Example of the tone of voice and emotions.

Answer 43

• Voice is deeper when the topic depresses or saddens a person.
• Speed of speech increases in the presence of emotions of anger, fear, and/or joy.
• Volume increases in fear, excitement, or anger.

Question 44

Which prosodic and paralanguage patterns are related to deceit?

Answer 44

Vrij (2000) states that the longer duration of pauses when lying, the higher pitched tone of voice, and the dilated response latency (Sheridan & Flowers, 2010), an attempt to gain time, is the only objective indicator of deception (Vrij, 2008).

Stammering appears in individuals who lie because they feel insecure and hesitant in their words and voices. However, the same appears when a person is nervous.

Question 45

How could paralanguage and prosody help to detect deception?

Answer 45

Different speech parameters, such as pitch, volume, speed, fundamental frequency, and voice quality, allow us to identify emotions in people.

These emotions, in turn, allow us to detect consistency and inconsistency between an individual’s verbal and nonverbal expressions.

Deceit is possible when a longer duration of pauses, the higher pitched tone of voice, the presence of stammering, or a dilated response latency could be directly related
to lying.

Question 46

How can deceit be detected through oculesics, gaze, and other eye-related movements?

Answer 46

No evidence to support a relationship between lying and eye movement.

Question 47

What does NLP stand for?

Answer 47

N - Neuro
L - Linguistic
P - Programming

Question 48

What is believed by NLP about eye movement and lying?

Answer 48

• Contrary to traditional assertions of NLP (Neuro Linguistic Programming) advocates who linked gaze direction to truth and lies.
• The mistake of stating so lightly and simplistically that a person who looks to the right while claiming to love the food we have prepared is lying, for example, is
  using a tool of great value and complexity incorrectly.
• Assumption and eye movement could have various interpretations. Thus simplification of deceit and inaccuracy.

Question 49

Explain the myth of a fixed gaze.

Answer 49

The belief is that the individual who maintains eye contact with his interlocutor cannot be lying and that, on the contrary, the one who averts his gaze is trying to deceive. Contrary to popular belief, anyone with some skill at deception needs to stare into the eyes of his interlocutor to monitor him and check the effect his lie is having on him (Buller & Burgoon,1996) and, in turn, reinforce it

Question 50

Do liars tend to avoid or keep deliberate eye contact?

Answer 50

Various research - deliberate eye contact compared to truth tellers.

Question 51

What does Ex-line (1963) believe regarding eye contact and hiding information?

Answer 51

Eye contact is often linked to the need to hide info.

A person trying to hide something that generates strong emotions often turns their neck and head away from the stimulus and closes their eyes and eyelids so as not to have to process the stimulus (e.g., a photo of the murdered victim).

These gestures are often combined with fixed glances at the interlocutor’s eyes to check whether the message has reached them.

Question 52

What is believed about avoiding eye contact and deceit?

Answer 52

Avoiding eye contact is often believed to indicate deceit without consideration of the character, subject, and context.

For example, if an investigator gets physically close to the suspect, it may cause gaze aversion because personal space is invaded, not automatically deceit.

Question 53

What is the function of eyelids?

Answer 53

-Protecting the eye from foreign bodies or
-unpredictable light changes,
- moistening the eye,
- promoting sleep by interrupting the eye’s information processing.

Question 54

What is the primary function of the eyelid in nonverbal communication?

Answer 54

Regulating incoming visual information flows to facilitate information processing.

(Hacker, Kuhlman, Kircher, Cook & Woltz, 2014)

Question 55

Is there any correlation between blinking and deceit?

Answer 55

Blinking becomes more pronounced just before maximum cognitive load or maximum information processing.

Blinking is inhibited as pupillary dilation increases with maximum performance (the pupil dilates with eyelid closure
and contracts with eyelid opening).

Blinking becomes more pronounced again after that maximum cognitive load.

According to this and taking into account that lying is cognitively more demanding
than telling the truth it is inferred that lying causes slight musculoskeletal changes, such as pupillary dilation and decreased blink rate, on the grounds of cognitive load
when doing so.

Question 56

How do liars adapt blinking when delivering a lie?

Sharon Leal and Aldert Vrij (2008)

Answer 56

Liars decreased blinking during deception (i.e., in the target period) compared to their basal pattern.

Blinking increased during the compensation period once the lie was expressed (compared to the target period and their basal pattern).

Question 57

What is the dilemma for using oculesics and cognitive load as indicators of deception?

Answer 57

Blinking also increases when nervous or anxious.

Yet, liars tend to blink more often since the interview commences, while blinking decreases as cognitive load increases.

Question 58

Why is it important to observe various behavioral cues, or the absence thereof, to detect deceit or rate the credibility of a testimony?

Answer 58

One cue may indicate deceit but not affect credibility. When different signals are evaluated together, even if scarce, they may build a report or incredibility together.

Question 59

What is known about learned body movements when liking or disliking another person?

(Mehrabian, 1972)

Answer 59

Knowing whether an individual likes/dislikes his or her interlocutor in a given context/issue can provide cues consistent with deception, although they are not always triggered by deception.

Question 60

Describe body orientation when a person feels at ease or not.

(Mehrabian, 1972)

Answer 60

When an individual feels at ease with another person, he or she leans forward more than when experiencing displeasure; the orientation of the body is more frontal, and the arms and body are more open.

A lying subject, upset at feeling cornered, may lean backward more frequently, and his body may be oriented in a different direction from that of his interlocutor, and his arms and body may adopt a more hermetic posture.

Question 61

Define ‘CORPORAL SLIPS.’

Answer 61

Involuntary gestures of some part of the body that reveal a hidden intention.

EXAMPLE: taking a step backward for no apparent reason but driven by an emotion that manifests the need to separate from something or someone that generates rejection or antipathy.

Also, self-shrinking or slouching are slips that denote shame that can be caused by the lie itself.

Question 62

How can corporal slips indicate deception?

Answer 62

Self-shrinking or slouching are slips that denote shame that can be caused by a lie.

Frosina et al. (2018) showed that those individuals who lie make more changes
in trunk movements than those who tell the truth; these changes are more significant when the liar narrates his or her story in reverse order in the context of a cognitive interview.

Question 63

How does FFF activate when a liar fears being detected?

FFF Fight, Flight, Freeze

Answer 63

Freeze:

The danger of being betrayed/caught causes a liar to freeze (paralysis while the brain analyzes the risks and possible actions).

Fight or Flight:

If he decides that fighting or fleeing are viable options, the liar activates a system that allows him to refute the argument or abandon the conversation and leave.

Freeze:

But if it mentally concludes that there is no way to emerge victorious, motor immobility patterns are activated, resulting in tonic immobility, i.e., body paralysis.

This paralysis in animals is considered an evolutionary reaction of adaptation when it is not possible to resist the attack of a predator.

Question 64

How does Knapp (1982) define proxemics?

Answer 64

Study of the use of perception of social and personal space.

Not include that it is mostly an unconscious and cultural process.

Question 65

How does Hall (1968) define proxemics/personal space?

Answer 65

Intimate space, causal-personal space, social-consultative space, and public space.

Question 66

What are the proxemic indicators of deception?

Answer 66

None - only know that person is uncomfortable if personal space is invaded. The space is different according to personal characteristics and culture. Behavior when uncomfortable or anxious could be interpreted as deceit, but the same as nervousness.

Question 67

What is known between haptics (touch) and deception?

Answer 67

No behavioral cues related to haptics are useful for deception detection.

Touch known to cause misunderstanding and misperceptions between persons, such as sexual harrassment, etc.