D1 Vineyard Selection, Establishment, and Management

Question 1

The growing environment depends on the ____ of the vineyard.

Answer 1

Location

Site selection influences style, quality and price of wines, just as the desired style, quality and desired price of wines influence site selection.

Question 2

If you wanted to produce high volume, consistent, inexpensive or mid-level wines that have high yields of healthy grapes, what is the ideal site you would consider for your vineyard?

Answer 2

A flat, fertile site in a warm, dry climate

• Flat = easy mechanization
• Fertile = high yields
• Warm = adequate ripening
• Dry = low fungal disease pressure

Question 3

What are two potential risks for grapes when planting vineyards on flat, fertile sites in a warm and dry climate?

Answer 3

1. Lack of concentration in the grapes;
2. Lack of freshness in the grapes (jammy aromas).

Question 4

If you were looking to produce premium or super-premium wines, what would you have to consider when selecting your vineyard site?

Answer 4

• What climate are you in?
  
  • if cool, consider warmer sites; if warm, consider cooler sites;
• Price of land;
• Is the site in a desirable appellation?
• Is the soil suitable for the grapes you want to grow?
• What are the location, layout and topography of the site?
• Are there slopes on the site and how steep are they?
  
  • this can indicate mechanical or hand harvesting;
• Does the site require irrigation? How is that water sourced and what will your water costs be?
• How easy or difficult is it to access the vineyard?
• How close or far away is the site from towns, supplies, labor?

Question 5

Prior to establishing a vineyard, what are four main factors related to the soil a grape grower must assess and, potentially, rectify?

Answer 5

1. Drainage and structure of the soil;
2. Mineral composition of the soil;
3. Presence of pests or unwanted plants;
4. Topography of the vineyard may be altered.

Question 6

Which one of the following factors influences root penetration, water drainage, nutrient holding capacity and workability?

• Soil structure
• Presence of pests
• Mineral composition of soil

Answer 6

Soil structure

Question 7

What is the subsoiling process?

Answer 7

The breaking down of an impenetrable layer of soil that promotes drainage and makes the soil easier to cultivate once the vineyard has been established.

Question 8

When establishing a vineyard, if a grape grower determines that their soil is acidic, what substance can they plough in to balance the soil?

Answer 8

Lime (calcium-based substance)

Question 9

What are three general considerations a grape grower must make when deciding what to plant?

Answer 9

1. Grape variety;
2. Which clone;
3. Which rootstock.

Question 10

When determining which grape varieties to plant in a new vineyard, what factors of the grape variety must be considered?

Answer 10

• Time of budding;
• Annual life cycle duration (when does it ripen);
• Drought tolerance;
• Disease resistance;
• Winter hardiness;
• Vigor.

Question 11

When determining which grape varieties to plant in a new vineyard, what non-climate factors must be considered?

Answer 11

• Style of wine;
• Yield;
• Cost;
• Law;
• Availability;
• Market demand.

Question 12

What is the main reason for grafting grapevines onto rootstocks?

Answer 12

To protect the vine from phylloxera

Many rootstocks are hybrids of two different vine species which takes advantage of desirable characteristics from both species.

Question 13

What four factors help a grape grower determine which rootstock to use?

Answer 13

1. Which pests live in the vineyard?
2. Water availability / does the area see drought?
3. Soil pH - how acidic is the soil?
4. Is the rootstock low, moderate, or high vigor?

Question 14

In the EU, grapes for PDO wines cannot be harvested from vines that are younger than ___ years old.

Answer 14

Four

Question 15

For the first two or three years of a vine’s life, what is common practice for the grape grower to help the vine’s growth?

Answer 15

Remove inflorescences as they form so that the young vine can concentrate its resources on growth.

Question 16

A vine produces its maximum yields of fruit between the age of ___ and ___.

Answer 16

10 and 40

Question 17

What is the minimum age a vine has to be in order for the label to have the term “Old Vines” on it?

Answer 17

There is no minimum – for one grape grower a 30-year old vine might be considered “old vine”; for another grape grower the vine might be 100-years old.

Question 18

What are four considerations to be made when determining soil health?

Answer 18

1. Soil structure;
2. How much organic matter and humus is in the soil;
3. Number of living organisms in the soil;
4. Total amount of available nutrients in the soil.

Question 19

Why is having bare, moist soil in the vineyard desirable (read: no weeds, cover crops, or mulches)?

Answer 19

The soil absorbs heat during the day and releases that heat at night, reducing frost risk.

Question 20

What are the two main categories of fertilizers?

Answer 20

1. Organic
2. Mineral

Question 21

From what are organic fertilizers derived?

Answer 21

Fresh or composted plant or animal material, such as manure or slurry.

Question 22

What is ‘green manure’?

Answer 22

Cover crops that are grown and mown into the soil to decompose and provide nutrients.

Question 23

What are the advantages of organic fertilizers?

Answer 23

• Cheap / free;
• If high in humus, good for soil structure + water retention;
• Provide nutrition for soil organisms;
• Their nutrients become available to the vine gradually as the nutrients must be broken down by organisms in the soil before the vine can soak them up.

Question 24

What are the disadvantages to organic fertilizers?

Answer 24

• Requires labor to incorporate the fertilizers into the soil;
• They’re bulky;
• Even though they might be cheap or free, their bulkiness makes them expensive to transport and spread.

Question 25

Mineral fertilizers are extracted from:

• The ground or chemically manufactured
• Nearby bodies of water
• Local stones steeped in a biodynamic solution

Answer 25

The ground or chemically manufactured

Question 26

What are the advantages to mineral fertilizers?

Answer 26

• They can be more tailored than organic fertilizers;
• Because they’re already in inorganic form, they are more readily available to the vines;
• More concentrated than organic fertilizers;
• Cheaper to transport and distribute.

Question 27

What are the disadvantages to mineral fertilizers?

Answer 27

• No benefit for soil organisms;
• Do not improve soil structure;
• More expensive than organic fertilizers.

Question 28

Define ‘cultivation.’

Answer 28

It is a method of weed control that involves ploughing the soil to cut or disturb the weeds’ root systems.

Question 29

What are three advantages of cultivation?

Answer 29

1. Chemical-free;
2. Can be used in organic and biodynamic viticulture;
3. Enables fertilizer and mown cover crops to be incorporated into the soil at the same time as removing weeds.

Question 30

What are the disadvantages of cultivation?

Answer 30

• Recurrent cultivation can damage soil structure and ecology (breakdown of organic matter and destruction of habitats);
• Expensive: requires both skilled labor and machinery;
• Encourages weeds to grow back;
• Can increase vine vigor because there is no competition for water or nutrients;
  
  • though cultivation can be an advantage in low vigour sites (poor soils and/or lack of water).

Question 31

Herbicides are chemical sprays that kill:

• Phylloxera
• Weeds
• Mildew

Answer 31

Weeds

See cards 21-24 in the Viticulture: Anatomy and Growth Cycle deck for details on Pre-emergence, Contact, and Systemic herbicides.

Question 32

What are three advantages of herbicides?

Answer 32

1. Cheap in re: labour and machinery requirements;
2. Highly effective, especially in the under-row area;
3. Less damaging to soil structure than cultivation.

Question 33

What are disadvantages of herbicides?

Answer 33

• Can potentially poison the operator, consumer and environment;
• Discourage vineyard ecosystems;
• Weeds can become resistant and therefore dosage may need to increase (or different chemicals need to be used);
• Can increase vine vigor since there is no competition for water or nutrients;
• Not allowed in organic and biodynamic viticulture.

Routine use of glyphosate, the most common contact herbicide, has given grape growers a particular problem with glyphosate-resistant ryegrass (especially in South Africa).

Question 34

What are the advantages of animals providing weed control (letting them graze in the vineyard)?

Answer 34

• No chemicals;
• Can be used in organic and biodynamic viticulture;
• Animals provide vineyard with manure;
• Animals can be a source of meat for humans.

Question 35

What are the disadvantages to allowing animals to graze in the vineyard?

Answer 35

• Vines must be trained high enough – or the grazing must be conducted out of the growing season – otherwise animals might eat leaves and grapes;
• General care for the animals can get expensive (food, shelter, veterinarian visits);
• Animals are often susceptible to vineyard pesticides.

Question 36

What are cover crops?

Answer 36

Plants that are allowed to grow (either as natural vegetation or purposely planted) between rows that have a beneficial effect on the vineyard.

Cover crops should be matched to the needs of the vineyard.

Question 37

Why might cover crops be grown in vineyards?

Answer 37

• To suppress weeds;
• Improve soil structure;
• Compete with the vine for nutrient and water availability in fertile sites;
• Manage soil erosion;
• Enhance biodiversity;
• Provide a surface to drive on.

Question 38

Give two examples of cover crops.

Answer 38

1. Legumes (e.g. beans, clover);
2. Cereals (e.g. ryegrass, oats).

Question 39

What are four advantages of cover crops?

Answer 39

1. No chemicals;
2. Increases soil biological activity and biodiversity in the vineyard (good for organic and biodynamic viticulture);
3. Can influence vine vigor through competition for water and nutrients;
4. Provides traction for machinery, which is good in climates with high annual rainfall.

Question 40

What are the disadvantages to cover crops?

Answer 40

• Reduction in vine vigor (vines compete for water and nutrients);
• Mowing the under-row area is difficult, especially near vine trunks, which has time and labor implications;
• Unsuitable for steep-sloped vineyards (slippery when wet!).

Question 41

What is ‘mulching’?

Answer 41

Spreading of matter onto the vineyard soil to suppress weed growth.

Question 42

What are mulches made of?

Answer 42

Biodegradable materials (e.g. straw or bark chips) that provide nutrients for the vines.

Mulch material with a high nutrient content can be chosen in nutrient-poor vineyards.

Question 43

What are three advantages of mulching?

Answer 43

• No chemicals, so can be used in organic and biodynamic viticulture;
• Can reduce water evaporation from the soil (good in dry climates);
• Can be a source of nutrients and humus, which promotes soil biological activity and good soil structure.

Question 44

What are the disadvantages of mulching?

Answer 44

• Bulky, so expensive to transport and spread;
• Only effective if applied in a thick layer, so a lot is usually required;
• Can increase vigor because vine has no competition for water or nutrients.

Question 45

Under what circumstances is irrigation a necessary component of vineyard design and establishment?

Answer 45

• If the vineyard is in an area likely to receive very little water through the growing season;
• If the vineyard has very free-draining soils.

Question 46

From a sustainability standpoint, what are some ways to increase the efficiency of water use?

Answer 46

1. Use water-efficient irrigation systems and techniques (e.g. dripper systems and regulated deficit irrigation);
2. Use of drought-tolerant grape varieties (e.g. Grenache), and rootstocks (e.g. 140R);
3. Reducing evaporation (e.g. by applying a mulch);
4. Reducing competition (e.g. weed removal);
5. Increasing humus in the soil to improve water retention (e.g. adding compost);
6. Promoting vine root growth to run deep into the soil (e.g. through cultivation).

Question 47

Why is a high salt level in water bad for the vine?

Answer 47

• High salt content in water makes it difficult for vine roots to take up water;
• Vine becomes dehydrated and the green parts of the vine start to wilt and will eventually die.

Question 48

What are the advantages of drip irrigation?

Answer 48

1. Economic use of water;
2. Can control water supply to individual rows or blocks of vines, tailoring management of the vineyard and potentially higher yields and quality;
3. Liquid fertiliser can be added to the water supply – this is called fertigation);
4. Can be used on slopes.

Question 49

What are the disadvantages of drip irrigation?

Answer 49

• Expensive to install, but maintenance costs are moderate;
• Drippers can become blocked
  
  • build up of algae, bacteria or high levels of minerals/salts;
• Required maintenance which means labor costs;
• Cannot be used in frost protection (aspersion) as the drippers are below the upper parts of the vine.

Question 50

Name three other types of irrigation besides drip irrigation.

Answer 50

1. Flood irrigation;
2. Channel irrigation;
3. Overhead sprinklers.

Question 51

What is flood irrigation?

Answer 51

• Water is stored behind a sluice and released at a scheduled time to flood the vineyard;
• Cheap to install and maintain, but inefficient as a lot of the water is not taken up by the vine;
• Can also only be used on flat or gently sloping land.

Question 52

What is channel irrigation?

Answer 52

• Water flows through furrows dug between rows, which can help increase efficiency of water use;
• Not suitable where water supply is limited;
• Common in Argentina because of abundant water from the Andes.

Question 53

What are the advantages and disadvantages of overhead sprinklers?

Answer 53

Advantages

• Shower water over the vineyard;
• Can be used as a method of frost protection (aspersion);

Disadvantages

• Expensive to install and maintain;
• Use a relatively large amount of water compared to drip irrigation.

Question 54

What is regulated deficit irrigation (RDI)?

Answer 54

A system that times and regulates the amount of irrigation so the vine is put under mild-to-moderate water stress for a specified time within the growing season.

Question 55

When is RDI used in a vine’s annual cycle?

Answer 55

Usually scheduled between fruit set and véraison to limit further shoot growth and encourage grape development.

Question 56

RDI is most effective in which regions and on which soils?

Answer 56

Regions with a dry growing season and sandy or loam soils that dry out and can be re-wet quickly.

RDI isn’t useful in regions with high rainfall or clay soils, which take a long time to dry out.

Question 57

What are the benefits of RDI?

Answer 57

• Vine growth and grape development better controlled;
• Less water can be used;
• Mild stress between fruit set and véraison can be beneficial.

Question 58

What are the disadvantages of RDI?

Answer 58

• Prolonged or extreme stress can lead to reduction in yield and quality;
• Often results in lower yields;
• Costs to monitor equipment.

Question 59

Why is RDI a favored technique for black grapes?

Answer 59

RDI can reduce grape size which increases the ratio of skins to juice, thereby increasing the concentration of anthocyanins and tannins (which are often seen as signs of quality).

Question 60

What is ‘dry farming’?

Answer 60

For grape growers in areas with limited rainfall in the growing season, it’s the choice of not using any form of irrigation.

Dry farming can lead to lower yields but potential improvement in grape quality.

Question 61

Define canopy management.

Answer 61

The organization of the vine’s shoots, leaves and fruit in pursuance of maximizing grape yield and quality.

Question 62

What are six general aims of canopy management?

Answer 62

1. Promote air circulation to minimize disease risk;
2. Maximize sunlight exposure to the canopy;
3. Reduce shade within the canopy;
4. Produce a uniform microclimate for the fruit to encourage even ripening;
5. Balance vegetative (e.g. tendril production) and reproductive functions (e.g. inflorescences) of the vine;
6. Arrange the canopy to facilitate harvest, whether for machine or hand.

Question 63

How can dense canopies increase fungal disease pressure?

Answer 63

• Poor air circulation means the canopy requires more time to dry out, creating damp conditions suitable for fungal disease;
• Dense canopies make it more difficult for sprays to reach all areas of the canopy.

Question 64

What are the effects in grapes from a vine’s increased photosynthetic capacity (read: good canopy management)?

Answer 64

• Increased sugar levels in grapes;
• Greater polymerization of tannins, which means less bitterness;
• Improved anthocyanin development in black grapes;
• Increased levels of some favorable aromas (precursors and compounds);
• Decreased malic acid – warmer grape temperatures lead to more malic acid being broken down in cellular respiration;
• Decreased methoxypyrazines (herbaceous character);

Optimizing canopy management means the vine can ripen larger yields.

Question 65

When considering canopy management and vine balance, what are the potential consequences of under-cropping (if fruit yield is too low in relation to the vine’s vigor)?

Answer 65

• Shoot growth continues through the vine cycle because there is not much fruit to ripen;
• These growing shoots and leaves compete with the grapes for sugar and other compounds, potentially negatively affecting grape formation and ripening;
• Can lead to a dense, shady canopy and lower quality fruit due to lack of sunlight interception;
• May result in low yields the next year due to reduced bud fruitfulness;
  
  • low yields in the next season may lead to under-cropping in that year and then the vine enters what is known as ‘a vegetative cycle’.

Question 66

When considering canopy management and vine balance, what are the potential consequences of over-cropping (if fruit yield is too high in relation to the vine’s vigor)?

Answer 66

Vine may accumulate sugars from the carbohydrates stored in the trunks, cordons, and roots;

• the vine needs these carbohydrates in the winter and following spring, and too high a crop load can weaken the vine in future years.

Question 67

Achieving correct balance in a vine is influenced by these two main factors.

Answer 67

1. The vine’s growing environment;
   
   • does the vine have access to the resources it needs?
2. The vine itself;
   
   • is the vine moderately or highly vigorous?

Question 68

What are the techniques comprising canopy management?

Answer 68

1. Site assessment (to determine ideal grape variety, rootstock vigor, planting density and row orientation);
2. Vine training;
3. Vine trellising;
4. Winter pruning;
5. Summer pruning;
6. Overall plant vigor management (nitrogen fertilization, irrigation, cover cropping, etc.).

Question 69

What are some summer pruning techniques?

Answer 69

• Debudding;
• Shoot removal;
• Shoot positioning;
• Shoot trimming;
• Pinching;
• Leaf removal;
• Green harvesting (also known as crop thinning).

Question 70

What is pinching and can it be mechanized?

Answer 70

Pinching is the removal the shoot tips at flowering to improve fruit set.

Pinching cannot be mechanized.

Question 71

What is meant by ‘vine density’?

Answer 71

The number of vines planted per hectare of vineyard.

Question 72

Give examples of low vine density and high vine density.

Answer 72

Low vine density: a few hundred vines per hectare

High vine density: over 10,000 vines per hectare

Question 73

Optimum vine density is influenced by what?

Answer 73

1. Vigor of the vine;
2. Type of trellising system used;
3. What access is needed between the vines (tractors, humans, channels, etc.).

Question 74

What are the factors that influence row orientation?

Answer 74

1. Climate
2. Logistical
   
   • prevailing wind
   • shape of field (does it have a long side?)
   • slopes (how steep are they?)

Question 75

What orientation is generally considered the one that provides the most even sunlight exposure through the canopy?

Answer 75

North-south orientation

Question 76

When establishing a vineyard, the most appropriate vine training and trellising methods will depend on:

Answer 76

1. The vigor of the vine;
2. Topography of the site;
   
   • slopes can be too steep for trellising, which means vines may need to grow on stakes (e.g. Mosel);
3. Will there be a need for mechanizaion?

Question 77

Vine training is split into two broad categories:

Answer 77

1. Head training
2. Cordon training

Question 78

What is the difference between a low-trained vine and a high-trained vine?

Answer 78

Low-trained vines have short trunks

• these benefit from heat released by the soil and provide greater protection from wind;

High-trained vines have long trunks

• these avoid frost better and make manual interventions easier (e.g. harvesting).

Head-trained and cordon-trained vines can be low or high trained.

Question 79

Describe head training.

Answer 79

• Usually just a trunk with short stubs growing out of the trunk (little permanent wood other than the trunk);
• Can be either spur-pruned or replacement cane-pruned.

Click HERE for a video.

Question 80

Describe cordon training.

Answer 80

• A trunk with usually one or two permanent, horizontal arms called “cordons”;
• Usually spur-pruned (spurs look like “fingers” growing out of the arm/cordon, see photo);
• Mechanized harvesting easier;
• Takes longer to establish than head training because of the amount of permanent wood.

Question 81

What is pruning, and when does pruning take place?

Answer 81

Pruning is the removal of unwanted parts of the vine.

Pruning happens in summer and in the winter.

Question 82

What are the two types of winter pruning?

Answer 82

1. Spur pruning
2. Replacement cane pruning

Question 83

What is spur pruning?

Is it easier or harder to carry out than replacement cane pruning?

Answer 83

Last growing season’s spurs that have become woody that have been cut back to have only 2-3 buds.

Spur pruning is easier to carry out than replacement cane pruning, and it can often be mechanised.

Spurs can either be distributed along a cordon (in cordon training, see image) or around the top of the trunk (in head training).

Question 84

What is replacement cane pruning?

Is replacement cane pruning more simple or more complex than spur pruning?

Answer 84

Replacement cane pruning is the annual removal of the previous winter’s cane and replacement with a one-year old cane. These canes are 1-2 ft long and can have between 8-20 buds.

They are typically laid down horizontally and need to be tied to a trellis for support and positioning.

Replacement cane pruning is more complex than spur pruning. It requires skill to pick suitable canes and train them properly.

Grape growers use varying techniques to determine how vigorous the vine is and how many buds need to be retained to keep the vine in balance.

Question 85

What are trellises?

Answer 85

Permanent structures of posts and wires that help to support and position the vine’s shoots.

Question 86

Vineyards can be untrellised or trellised.

When a vineyard is untrellised, how are the vines typically trained?

What climates + conditions is this training best suited for?

Answer 86

Head-trained and spur-pruned (also known as Bush vines)

Best suited for hot + sunny climates with dry conditions.

Note! Bush vines are not suitable for mechanized harvest.

Question 87

What are the advantages of trellising vineyards?

Answer 87

• Shoots can be spread out to maximize light interception and increase air flow through the canopy (reducing risk of fungal disease);
• Ability to position the fruit in one area to mechanization.

Question 88

What are the disadvantages of trellising vineyards?

Answer 88

• Expensive to establish, especially for more complex systems;
• Trellises need maintenance.

Question 89

Name one of the most common and simple types of trellising systems.

Answer 89

Vertical shoot positioning (VSP)

Question 90

How are the shoots trained in Vertical shoot positioning (VSP)?

Answer 90

The vine’s shoots are trained vertically and are held in place on the trellis forming a single narrow canopy.

VSP is best suited to vines with low or moderate vigor.

Question 91

Vertical shoot positioning (VSP) can be used on which one of the following:

• Head-trained, replacement cane-pruned vines only
• Cordon-trained, spur-pruned vines only
• Both head-trained, replacement cane-pruned vines and cordon-trained, spur pruned vines

Answer 91

BOTH head-trained, replacement cane-pruned vines and cordon-trained, spur-pruned vines

Question 92

When Vertical shoot positioning (VSP) is used on replacement cane-pruned vines, what is this type of training called?

Answer 92

Guyot

One cane is retained in Single Guyot; two in Double Guyot

Question 93

Highly vigorous vines need more complex training systems since their canopies would become too dense with VSP.

What other types of complex training systems can be used for vines with high vigor?

Answer 93

1. Geneva Double Curtain (GDC) or Lyre – canopy split horizontally;
2. Smart-Dyson or Scott-Henry – canopy split vertically.

Question 94

What are the objectives of summer pruning?

Answer 94

1. Encourage grape ripening;
2. Reduce risk of fungal disease;
3. Make vineyard easier to manage.

Question 95

Give three reasons why you would use debudding (disbudding).

Answer 95

1. Manage vine yields;
2. Manage vine balance;
3. Remove poorly positioned buds (e.g. downward-facing buds, or too close together)

Note: buds can be removed from fruit-bearing shoots and non-fruit bearing shoots. In the latter case, it’s done to direct the vine’s resources to the buds on fruit-bearing shoots.

Question 96

What is the difference between shoot removal and leaf removal?

Answer 96

Shoot removal is the removal of shoots (usually lateral shoots) that are infertile or poorly positioned to help maintain an organized, open canopy.

Leaf removal is the removal of just leaves to reduce shading of fruit and enhance ripening, particularlty if it’s done just before véraison; it also improves air circulation and spray penetration.

Note!: excessive leaf removal exposes the grapes to too much sun and heat and can lead to sunburn.

Question 97

Crop thinning/green harvesting:

• What is it?
• Why is it done?
• What happens if you do it near véraison?

Answer 97

The removal of whole bunches of grapes.

It’s done to increase ripeness, uniformity of ripeness, and quality of grapes left on the vine (especially if the vine experienced issues such as frost or uneven bud burst).

If done near véraison it can enhance ripening and potentially quality.