Culture Flashcards
Evoked culture
Evoked culture refers to behavioral differences that arise due to environmental conditions triggering genetic predispositions.
Key Points:
🔹 Influenced by environment & evolution
🔹 Universal psychological mechanisms exist, but they are triggered differently based on surroundings.
Examples:
✔ Aggression & Climate: In warmer regions, less need for seasonal food storage → More emphasis on reputation (e.g., culture of honor in herding societies).
✔ Parenting & Resources: Scarcity of resources → More collectivist, community-focused child-rearing.
✔ Risk-Taking & Geography: Harsh, unpredictable environments (e.g., natural disasters) → More risk-taking behaviors.
Transmitted culture
Definition:
Transmitted culture refers to ideas, values, and behaviors passed down through social learning (not environment).
Key Points:
🔹 Learned from parents, peers, media, and society
🔹 Persists across generations even when environmental conditions change
Examples:
✔ Religious Beliefs: Parents teach children their religious values, even if they move to a different country.
✔ Language & Norms: A child adopts politeness norms from their society, regardless of genetics.
✔ Dietary Practices: People avoid certain foods due to cultural taboos (e.g., pork in some religions).
Cultural Dimension Theory
Developed by:
🔹 Geert Hofstede (1980, expanded later)
Definition:
Cultural Dimensions Theory explains how cultures differ in values, behaviors, and social norms based on six key dimensions.
Hofstede’s Dimensions
Power Distance (PDI) 👑
High PDI: Accepts hierarchy, respects authority (e.g., China, Mexico).
Low PDI: Prefers equality, challenges authority (e.g., Denmark, Sweden).
2️⃣ Individualism vs. Collectivism (IDV) 👤👥
Individualistic: Focus on personal achievements (e.g., USA, UK).
Collectivistic: Emphasis on group harmony & loyalty (e.g., Japan, India).
3️⃣ Masculinity vs. Femininity (MAS) 🚹🚺
Masculine: Competitive, achievement-driven (e.g., Japan, USA).
Feminine: Cooperative, quality of life-focused (e.g., Sweden, Netherlands).
4️⃣ Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) ❓
High UAI: Prefers rules, structure, avoids uncertainty (e.g., Greece, Portugal).
Low UAI: Open to change, risk-taking (e.g., Singapore, Denmark).
5️⃣ Long-Term vs. Short-Term Orientation (LTO) ⏳
Long-Term: Future-oriented, values perseverance (e.g., China, South Korea).
Short-Term: Focus on tradition & immediate rewards (e.g., USA, Nigeria).
6️⃣ Indulgence vs. Restraint (IVR) 🎉🔒
Indulgent: Encourages enjoyment & fun (e.g., Mexico, USA).
Restrained: Emphasizes self-discipline, strict social norms (e.g., Russia, China).
Cultural universals
Cultural universals are elements of human culture that exist in every society, regardless of time or place. These traits are thought to arise from shared evolutionary, biological, and social needs.
Proposed by:
🔹 George Murdock (1945) – Identified a list of universals across cultures.
Key Cultural Universals:
✔ Language & Communication – All cultures have a system of spoken, written, or symbolic communication.
✔ Family Structures – Kinship, marriage, and child-rearing exist everywhere.
✔ Rituals & Religion – Every society has spiritual or religious beliefs.
✔ Music & Art – Found in all cultures, even in isolated groups.
✔ Moral Codes & Laws – Societal rules and punishments for deviance exist universally.
✔ Cooking & Food Preferences – Every culture prepares food differently but relies on it for survival.
WEIRD countries
WEIRD stands for Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic. It describes the dominant population in psychological research, even though these societies are not representative of the global population.
Proposed by:
🔹 Henrich, Heine & Norenzayan (2010) – Argued that most psychological studies focus on WEIRD populations, leading to biased generalizations.
Characteristics of WEIRD Societies:
✔ Highly Individualistic – Focus on personal success & independence.
✔ Low Power Distance – Less hierarchy; challenges to authority are common.
✔ Analytical Thinking – Preference for logic & categorization rather than holistic thinking.
✔ Secular & Scientific – Emphasize education, rationality, and progress.
✔ Strong Legal Systems – Rely on formal laws rather than social relationships.
Problems with WEIRD Bias in Psychology:
🚨 WEIRD samples (mostly American university students) are not representative of all human behavior.
🚨 Findings based on WEIRD cultures may not apply to collectivist, rural, or traditional societies.
🚨 Overgeneralization can lead to misleading conclusions about human nature.
Attribution theory
Attribution theory is concerned with how ordinary people explain the causes of behavior and events. For example, is someone angry because they are bad-tempered or because something bad happened?
Dispositional Attribution
Dispositional attribution assigns the cause of behavior to some internal characteristic of a person rather than to outside forces.
When we explain the behavior of others, we look for enduring internal attributions, such as personality traits. This is known as the fundamental attribution error.
For example, we attribute the behavior of a person to their personality, motives, or beliefs.
Situational Attribution
The process of assigning the cause of behavior to some situation or event outside a person’s control rather than to some internal characteristic.
When we try to explain our behavior, we tend to make external attributions, such as situational or environmental features.
Self-serving bias
The self-serving bias is a cognitive bias where individuals attribute their successes to internal factors like talent or effort, while blaming external factors like luck or other people for their failures. This bias serves to maintain self-esteem and protect one’s ego.
Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979)
Social Identity Theory, proposed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s, posits that individuals derive a portion of their self-concept from their membership in social groups.
The theory seeks to explain the cognitive processes and social conditions underlying intergroup behaviors, especially those related to prejudice, bias, and discrimination.
Social identity is a person’s sense of who they are based on their group membership(s).
Tajfel and Turner (1979) proposed that the groups (e.g., social class, family, football team, etc.) people belonged to were important sources of pride and self-esteem.
Social Categorization
This refers to the tendency of people to classify themselves and others into various social groups based on attributes like race, gender, nationality, or religion.
We categorize objects to understand them and identify them. In a very similar way, we categorize people (including ourselves) to understand the social environment. We use social categories like black, white, Australian, Christian, Muslim, student, and bus driver because they are useful.
Categorization helps individuals simplify the social environment but can also lead to stereotyping. If we can assign people to a category, that tells us things about those people.
Similarly, we find out things about ourselves by knowing what categories we belong to. We define appropriate behavior by referencing the norms of groups we belong to, but you can only do this if you can tell who belongs to your group.
An individual can belong to many different groups.
For example, you have categorized yourself as a student, chances are you will adopt the identity of a student and begin to act the ways you believe student act.
Identification
Once individuals categorize themselves as members of a particular group, they adopt the identity of that group. This means they begin to see themselves in terms of group characteristics and adopt its norms, values, and behaviors.
If for example you have categorized yourself as a student, the chances are you will adopt the identity of a student and begin to act in the ways you believe students act (and conform to the norms of the group).
There will be an emotional significance to your identification with a group, and your self-esteem will become bound up with group membership.
Comparison
After categorizing and identifying with a group, individuals compare their group to others. This comparison is often biased in favor of one’s own group, leading to in-group favoritism.
This is critical to understanding prejudice, because once two groups identify themselves as rivals, they are forced to compete in order for the members to maintain their self-esteem.
Competition and hostility between groups is thus not only a matter of competing for resources (like in Sherif’s Robbers Cave) like jobs but also the result of competing identities.
Display rules of emotions
Analytical thinking
Analytical thinking is a logical, rule-based way of understanding the world by focusing on individual objects and their properties rather than the whole context.
Key Characteristics:
✔ Focus on Objects – Breaks things down into parts.
✔ Uses Categories & Rules – Groups things based on shared traits.
✔ Logic-Based Reasoning – Prefers facts and direct cause-effect relationships.
✔ Low Context Dependence – Less emphasis on background or environment.
Cultural Influence:
🌎 Common in Western/WEIRD cultures (USA, Canada, Europe).
🌎 Influenced by individualism – people prioritize independence & personal goals.
Examples:
✔ Visual Perception: Seeing a fish in an aquarium as an independent object, rather than part of the environment.
✔ Problem-Solving: Sorting a “dog & wolf” together because both belong to the same animal category.
✔ Decision-Making: Applying universal rules rather than adjusting based on circumstances.
Holistic thinking
Holistic thinking is a relationship-based, context-focused way of understanding the world by seeing connections between objects and their environment rather than isolating parts.
Key Characteristics:
✔ Focus on Relationships – Sees how elements interact.
✔ Context-Dependent Reasoning – Considers the bigger picture.
✔ Experience-Based Thinking – More flexible and adaptable than rule-based logic.
✔ Prefers Patterns & Harmony – Emphasizes balance rather than strict categories.
Cultural Influence:
🌏 Common in East Asian cultures (China, Japan, Korea).
🌏 Influenced by collectivism – people prioritize group harmony & interdependence.
Examples:
✔ Visual Perception: Seeing a fish and the water, plants, and overall scene in an aquarium.
✔ Problem-Solving: Grouping “dog & bone” together because a dog interacts with a bone.
✔ Decision-Making: Adapting choices based on relationships & changing situations rather than strict rules.
Aggression
Cultural Influences on Aggression:
🌍 Individualistic Cultures (e.g., USA, UK, Germany):
More direct & explicit aggression (verbal or physical).
Emphasizes personal rights (e.g., self-defense, standing up for oneself).
🌏 Collectivist Cultures (e.g., Japan, China, Korea):
More indirect & relational aggression (social exclusion, gossip).
Emphasizes group harmony, so open conflict is discouraged.
Culture of Honor:
✔ Found in Latin America, Middle East, Southern USA.
✔ Aggression is seen as justified in response to threats to reputation.
✔ Encourages strong retaliation when honor is challenged.
Example:
⚡ In Western cultures, people may verbally confront a rude person.
⚡ In East Asian cultures, people may use passive resistance or avoid conflict.
Well-being
Well-being refers to happiness, life satisfaction, and mental health, but cultural values shape how it is defined and achieved.
Cultural Differences in Well-Being:
🌎 Individualistic Cultures:
Well-being is based on personal achievement, independence, and self-esteem.
Happiness = Individual success & positive emotions.
🌏 Collectivist Cultures:
Well-being is based on relationships, social harmony, and group belonging.
Happiness = Fulfilling social roles & maintaining balance.
Happiness vs. Meaning:
✔ Western Cultures prioritize hedonic well-being (pleasure & positive emotions).
✔ Eastern Cultures prioritize eudaimonic well-being (meaning, balance, and duty).
Example:
😊 Americans report happiness as “feeling good” and emphasize excitement.
🧘 Japanese report happiness as “being at peace” and value calm emotions.
Emotions
Emotions are universal, but how they are expressed and regulated is shaped by culture.
Cultural Differences in Emotion Expression:
🌎 Western/Individualistic Cultures:
Express emotions openly (especially happiness, pride).
High value on personal emotional experiences.
🌏 Eastern/Collectivist Cultures:
More emotional suppression to maintain social harmony.
Emphasis on interpersonal emotions (e.g., guilt, shame, empathy).
Display Rules:
✔ Western Cultures – Openly show emotions, even in public.
✔ Asian Cultures – Regulate emotions to avoid disrupting social harmony.
✔ Middle Eastern/Latin Cultures – Expressive emotions, especially positive & strong emotions in social settings.
Example:
😃 Americans smile more to show friendliness, even to strangers.
😐 Japanese people may mask emotions to maintain politeness.
