Attitudes Flashcards
Attitude
an attitude refers to a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviours toward a particular object, person, or event. Attitude can also be described as the way we evaluate something or someone. For example, we tend to respond positively or negatively about certain subjects (death penalty, abortion, adoption)
Components of attitudes
Affective Component
Behavioural Component
Cognitive Component
Affective component
Refers to emotional reactions or feelings toward an object, person, or situation.
Example: “I love dogs because they make me happy.”
Behavioural component
How we act or behave toward an object or situation based on our attitude. This can be a verbal or a physical response.
Example: “I adopt stray dogs and donate to animal shelters.”
Cognitive component
Your perception, ideas, and beliefs about the subject matter.
Example: “Dogs are loyal and great companions.”
Explicit attitudes
Explicit attitudes are those that we are consciously aware of and that clearly influence our emotional and behavioural reactions.
Implicit attitudes
Implicit attitudes are unconscious but still impact our emotions and behaviors.
Self-perception theory (Bem, 1967)
Self-Perception Theory (Bem, 1967) suggests that people develop their attitudes and emotions by observing their own behaviour and then inferring what they feel or believe based on their actions.
Daryl Bem conducted an experiment that involved subjects who listened to a recording of a man describing a tedious peg-turning task enthusiastically. One group was told that the man was paid $1 for his testimonial, while the other group was told he was paid $20 for it. The $1 group believed that he enjoyed the task more than how much the $20 group believed he enjoyed it. The two groups’ conclusions correlated to the feelings that the actors themselves expressed. Because the participants were able to correctly guess how the actors felt, it was concluded that the actors must have arrived at the way they felt from observing their own behaviour as well.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Leon Festinger, 1957)
Festinger’s (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and behavior in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance). This is known as the principle of cognitive consistency. When there is an inconsistency between attitudes or behaviors (dissonance), something must change to eliminate the dissonance.
Notice that dissonance theory does not state that these modes of dissonance reduction will actually work, only that individuals who are in a state of cognitive dissonance will take steps to reduce the extent of their dissonance.
Causes: decision-making; forced compliance behaviour, effort
Reduction: change behaviour/belief; justify behaviour; add a new belief; reduce the importance of one belief
Implicit Association Test (IAT) (Anthony Greenwald & Mazarin Banaji, 1995)
A test intended to reveal subtle, nonconscious biases, even among those who believe they are bias-free.
Setup: a series of words or pictures are presented on a computer screen. The respondent preses a certain key if it conforms to a pre-established rule, and a different key if it conforms to another rule. Researchers argue that participants will be faster to press the button for a particular group if they match stereotypes they already carry about them, compared to pressig the button for what contradicts these stereotypes.
Neuroimaging studies showed activation in the amygdala when looking at Black faces, correlating with their IAT results.
Theory of planned behaviours
The theory of planned behavior (TPB) is a cognitive theory by Azjen (1985) that proposes that an individual’s decision to engage in a specific behavior, such as gambling or stopping gambling, can be predicated by their intention to engage in that behavior. As a general rule, the stronger the intention to engage in a behavior, the more likely should be its performance”.
According to TPB, intentions are determined by three variables:
1. Personal attitudes
2. Subjective norms
3. Perceived behavioral control
Personal attitudes
This is our personal attitude towards a particular behavior. It is the sum of all our knowledge, attitudes, and prejudices,positive and negative, that we think of when we consider the behavior.
For example, our individual attitude to smoking might include tobacco is relaxing and makes me feel good, but it makes me cough in the morning, costs a lot of money, and smells bad.
Subjective norms
This considers how we view the ideas of other people about a specific behavior, e.g., smoking. This could be the attitude of family and friends, and colleagues toward smoking. It is not what other people think but our perception of others’ attitudes.
Perceived behavioural control
This is the extent to which we believe we can control our behavior.
This depends on our perception of internal factors, such as our own ability and determination, and external factors, such as the resources and support available to us. The theory argues that our perception of behavioral control has two effects:
It affects our intentions to behave in a certain way, i.e., the more control we think we have over our behavior, the stronger our intention to perform it.
It also affects our behavior directly; if we perceive that we have a high level of control, we will try harder and longer to succeed.
The present view of perceived behavioral control, however, is most compatible with Bandura’s concept of perceived self-efficacy, which is concerned with judgments of how well one can execute courses of action required to deal with prospective situations.
Elaboration likelihood model
a model of persuasion that maintains that there are two routes to persuasion: central route and peripheral route.
central route
a route to persuasion wherein people think carefully and deliberately about the content of a persuasive message, attending to its logic and the strength ofits arguments as well as to related evidence and principles.
peripheral route
a route to persuasion wherein people attend to relatively easy-to-process, superficial cues related to a persuasive message, such as its length or the expertise or attractiveness of the source of the message.
Balance theory
Heider explained that a balance must exist between interpersonal relationships or for something specific between two or more individuals so that psychological harmony can be achieved.
If two or more people share similar ideas about something, there is not likely to be any tension or complication surrounding this idea in the relationship.
The key notion of balance theory is that certain structures are balanced, whereas others are imbalanced. Balanced structures are usually preferred over imbalanced ones.
Imbalanced structures are associated with uncomfortable feelings, and this is what leads people to seek to achieve balance.
Heider suggested that ‘likes’ and ‘dislikes’ are related to balance and imbalance. Humans search for consistency between their attitudes and relations with others to make the balance neutral.
However, if there is an inconsistency between relations and a perceived imbalance, humans tend to seek modifications to reach consistency and thus cognitive harmony of the situation again.
In this way, balance theory describes how humans are motivated to change their attitudes.
How balance theory works
Heider explained how balance theory works by developing a model which examines interpersonal relationships.
The reactions of each individual are framed within a triangle that Heider called the P-O-X model.
Each corner of the triangle represents a different element:
P = the person to analyze
O = Other, or the comparison person
X = the third element for comparisons such as a third person, a physical object, an idea, or an event.
Relation patterns between 3 individuals or objects are often referred to as ‘triadic’ relations.
Through the P-O-X model, it can be possible to deduce the positive and negative relationships between what each person perceives with another or with a certain object.
The relations between the individuals or objects on the P-O-X model can be either positive (+) or negative (-) and this is what can determine if a relationship is balanced. For instance, three positive relations are balanced, as well as two negative relations with one positive relationship. This would be a situation that is psychologically comfortable.
In contrast, a triad is imbalanced when it includes an odd number of negative relations, such as having one negative relation and two positives. This is a situation that would be psychologically uncomfortable, according to balance theory.
Balance theory relationship dynamics
There are thought to be two types of relationship dynamics taking place in a triadic relationship:
Unit relationships – this is how much the different elements of the triangle belong together – the more similarities that exist, the more likely the psychological balance will occur.
Sentiment relationships – how one feels about something – are categorized as either ‘liking’ or ‘disliking.’
Differences between cognitive dissonance theory and balance theory
Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort that comes from holding two conflicting attitudes or beliefs.
For instance, taking the case of smoking cigarettes, two conflicting thoughts someone may have can be:
‘I enjoy smoking cigarettes.’
‘Smoking cigarettes is unhealthy.’
Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that people prefer cognitive consonance, where two attitudes, beliefs, or ideas are consistent with one another. While this seems similar to balance theory, they are defined in different ways.
Balance theory focuses on a triadic relation between the self, another person(s), and a third element.
Unlike cognitive dissonance theory, balance theory emphasizes inconsistencies between interpersonal relations, while cognitive dissonance can occur without any interpersonal inconsistencies.
Dual processing theory
System 1 (Fast) **
* Automatic, intuitive, and quick thinking
* Fast & unconscious
* Low effort (intuitive)
* Example in Decision-Making Instantly judging a stranger’s mood
* ** Example in Problem-Solving Instinctively catching a falling object
* Example in Social Psychology Implicit biases and snap judgment
System 2 (Slow)
* Deliberate, logical, and effortful thinking
* Slow & conscious
* High effort (analytical)
* Example in Decision-MakingCarefully weighing pros and cons before making a big purchase
* Example in Problem-SolvingSolving a complex math problem
* Example in Social PsychologyReflecting on personal beliefs and changing opinions over time
Mere exposure effect
The Mere Exposure Effect is a psychological phenomenon where people develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar with them.
📌 Key Points
🔹 First Proposed By: Robert Zajonc (1968)
🔹 Also Known As: Familiarity Principle
🔹 How It Works: The more we see/hear something, the more we tend to like it—even without realizing it!
🔹 Applies to: People, objects, brands, music, and even ideas.
