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Culture Flashcards

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1
Q

What is culture?

A

Cognitive processes & practices that identify a specific social group, their values, rituals, customs, traditions & social behaviours.

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2
Q

Who can culture be applied to?

A

Social collectives of all sizes (e.g. nations, families, work groups, organisations & local communities)

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3
Q

Which fields does culture overlap with?

A

Anthropology, sociology & developmental & business psychology.

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4
Q

How can cultures differ?

A

In the nature of their economy, education levels, values, languages, environments, religions, political systems, traditions, wealth & technology.

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5
Q

Are people from the UK individualistic or collectivistic?

A

Individualistic

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6
Q

Are people from China individualistic or collectivistic?

A

Collectivistic

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7
Q

What did Hofstede distribute to 117,000 managers of a large multinational corporation in 40 different countries?

A

A values questionnaire

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8
Q

How many important dimensions did Hofstede identify to compare the 40 different countries that took part in his questionnaires?

A

4

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9
Q

What are the important dimensions that Hofstede identified to compare the 40 different countries that took part in his questionnaires?

A

Individualism-collectivism, masculinity-femininity, uncertainty avoidance & power distance

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10
Q

What does the individualism-collectivism dimension used by Hofstede to compare the 40 different countries that took part in his questionnaire entail?

A

How closely people within a society are integrated into a group (e.g. how much people value their own personal glory relative to the success of a group)

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11
Q

What does the masculinity-femininity dimension used by Hofstede to compare the 40 different countries that took part in his questionnaire entail?

A

How much attributes that are either traditionally masculine or feminine are valued (masculine attributes could be achieving, gaining & competitive, while feminine attributes could be promoting inter-personal harmony & caring)

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12
Q

What does the uncertainty avoidance dimension used by Hofstede to compare the 40 different countries that took part in his questionnaire entail?

A

The degree to which people seek to reduce uncertainty & act inflexibly or are tolerant of certain outcomes (an example of acting inflexibly could be believing that rules & traditions should always be followed)

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13
Q

What does the power distance dimension used by Hofstede to compare the 40 different countries that took part in his questionnaire entail?

A

The degree to which unequal power in institutions is accepted vs. the extent to which egalitarianism is endorsed (can employers openly disagree with managers?)

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14
Q

How did Danish employees score on Hoftstede’s cultural dimension of individualism-collectivism?

A

They scored high on his dimension of individualism (0.74)

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15
Q

How did Danish employees score on Hoftstede’s cultural dimension of masculinity-femininity?

A

They scored low on his dimension of masculinity (0.16).

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16
Q

How did Danish employees score on Hoftstede’s cultural dimension of uncertainty avoidance?

A

They scored low (0.23)

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17
Q

How did Danish employees score on Hoftstede’s cultural dimension of power distance?

A

They scored low (0.18).

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18
Q

What do Danes not easily accept?

A

Hierarchical (autocratic) relationship structures.

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19
Q

What do Danes tend to be tolerant of in relation to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions?

A

Uncertain outcomes

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20
Q

Which qualities do Danes have?

A

They are caring & egalitarian

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21
Q

How do Danes determine their identities?

A

Through their own choices & achievements.

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22
Q

How did Japanese employees score on Hoftstede’s cultural dimension of individualism-collectivism?

A

They scored low on his dimension of individualism (0.46)

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23
Q

How did Japanese employees score on Hoftstede’s cultural dimension of masculinity-femininity?

A

They scored high on his dimension of masculinity (0.95).

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24
Q

How did Japanese employees score on Hoftstede’s cultural dimension of uncertainty avoidance?

A

They scored high (0.92)

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25
Q

How did Japanese employees score on Hoftstede’s cultural dimension of power distance?

A

They scored medium (0.54)

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26
Q

What do the Japanese follow?

A

Rules & traditions

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27
Q

What kind of outcomes do the Japanese seek in relation to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions?

A

Clear-cut ones

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28
Q

What do the Japanese do to achieve & gain material success in relation to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions?

A

They work hard

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29
Q

How many ways are there in which we can conceive of all cultural differences?

A

Many

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30
Q

What is 1 important dimension involved in conceiving all cultural differences?

A

The interdependence-independence dimension

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31
Q

What do independent cultures emphasise?

A

Autonomy, individual decision-making & personal distinctiveness

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32
Q

What are examples of independent cultures?

A

The USA & Germany

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33
Q

What do interdependent cultures emphasise?

A

Social connection, conformity & relations with others.

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34
Q

What are examples of interdependent cultures?

A

China & Turkey

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35
Q

What are norms?

A

Formal/ informal rules or expectations that determine the conduct of group members.

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36
Q

Who asserted that tight cultures have strong, homogenous norms & little tolerance for deviant behaviour, whereas loose cultures have weaker norms & greater tolerance for deviant behaviour?

A

Pelto (1968)

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37
Q

Who found that southern states (e.g. Mississippi, Alabama & Arkansas) had tighter cultural norms than western states (e.g. California, Oregon & Washington)

A

Harrington & Gelfand (2014)

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38
Q

Which cultures emphasise honour & social status, particularly for males, & the role of aggression in protecting that honour?

A

Honour cultures

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39
Q

In societies that aren’t honour cultures (e.g. GB, Canada, & the northern US states), how is violence viewed?

A

As a disproportionate response to a personal/ familial insult.

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40
Q

What kind of cultures in individualistic societies often emphasise threats to an individual’s sense of respect/ masculinity?

A

Honour cultures (e.g. Brazil, Chile & the southern US)

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41
Q

What kind of cultures in collectivist societies often emphasise threats to the honour of a family/ community?

A

Honour cultures (e.g. Pakistan & Turkey)

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42
Q

What kind of students listened to audiotapes of a husband describing a violent conflict with his wife in Vandello et al.’s study in 2009?

A

Chilean & Canadian students

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43
Q

In Vandello et al.’s study in 2009, which group of students rated the husband & his actions more positively than the Canadians when the conflict was triggered by his wife apparently flirting with another man?

A

The Chilean students

44
Q

In Vandello et al.’s study in 2009, how many cultural differences were seen when the conflict was unrelated to jealousy (e.g. the wife had spent too much money)?

A

No cultural differences were seen.

45
Q

What does ‘WEIRD’ stand for in relation to culture?

A

Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich, & Democratic

46
Q

How much psychological research assumes that studies conducted within Western populations will generalise to other cultures (i.e. that Western populations are ‘standard’ & that there is little cross-cultural variation)?

A

Most psychological research

47
Q

What are rarely tested in multiple cultures?

A

Paradigms

48
Q

What may, in fact, be particularly unusual cultures?

A

Western populations

49
Q

What are examples of cultural differences?

A

Differences in social norms, marriage traditions, child care, meal times, obedience to authority, intelligence levels, perception of space & volume in public.

50
Q

What do Western approaches believe intelligence entails?

A

Academic & cognitive skills, processing speed, generalisation & extrapolation, rule learning, task completion with the fewest possible steps, & creative thinking.

51
Q

What do Chinese philosophers believe intelligence entails?

A

Benevolence & doing the right thing (Confucian perspective), humility, freedom from conventional standards of judgement, & a full knowledge of oneself (Taoist tradition)

52
Q

What do African cultures often emphasise in relation to intelligence?

A

Social competence

53
Q

Who emphasise social responsibilities, cooperativeness, obedience & respect for elders?

A

Chewa adults in Zambia

54
Q

Who emphasise responsible participation in the family & in social situations?

A

Kenyan parents

55
Q

Where does the word for intelligence (“ngware”) actually mean to be prudent & cautious in social relationships?

A

In Zimbabwe

56
Q

Which survey revealed conceptions of what it means to be intelligent?

A

A survey of parents carried out in San Jose (California)

57
Q

In a survey of parents carried out in San Jose (California), which type of parents tended to emphasise the importance of social competence?

A

Those of Mexican heritage

58
Q

In a survey of parents carried out in San Jose (California), which type of parents tended to emphasise the importance of cognitive skills?

A

Anglo & Asian parents.

59
Q

What is an example of a cultural difference?

A

Difference in intelligence

60
Q

In a survey of Chinese & Australian students, which group of students viewed memory of facts as being important for intelligence?

A

The Chinese group of students

61
Q

In a survey of Chinese & Australian students, which group of students viewed memory of facts as only being of trivial importance for intelligence?

A

The Australian group of students

62
Q

What is an example of one of the few intelligence tests that are described as “culture-fair”?

A

Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test (1936)

63
Q

Which type of intelligence test seeks to measure general intelligence (‘g’) in a way that is minimally affected by general knowledge, vocabulary, & experience of formal testing?

A

“Culture-fair” intelligence tests

64
Q

Which type of intelligence test measures “intelligence” as conceived by Western cultures, despite their scores being perhaps less affected by socio-economic status & formal education than other IQ tests?

A

“Culture-fair” intelligence tests

65
Q

What is an example of what Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test looks like?

A

Various shapes each consisting of a number of divisions, & shaded differently.

66
Q

How can the spatial relationship between objects be described in different ways?

A

By using different frames of reference (FoRs)

67
Q

Which perspective is associated with a relative FoR?

A

The viewer’s perspective (e.g. the viewer says, “The fork is to the left of the spoon”, but when you go around to the other side of the table, the fork would now properly be described as being to the right of the spoon).

68
Q

Which perspective is associated with an absolute FoR?

A

A perspective involving an external framework (e.g. north, east, south, & west).

69
Q

What is an example of a statement from an absolute FoR?

A

“The fork is to the north of the spoon”

69
Q

How are spatial relations described from an intrinsic FoR?

A

Without reference to either yourself/ any other external system of coordinates (e.g. “the fork is at the nose of the spoon”)

70
Q

Who use 2 different FoRs to describe spatial relationships?

A

English speakers

71
Q

How might English speakers demonstrate their perception of space?

A

By either saying, “The fork is to the left of the spoon” (if they’re using a relative FoR)/ “The fork is beside the spoon” (if they’re using an intrinsic FoR)

72
Q

What is an example of a sentence that English speakers would not say to demonstrate their perception of space?

A

“The fork is to the north of the spoon” (which could be used from an absolute FoR)

73
Q

In how many languages are only absolute FoRs used by their speakers?

A

Some

74
Q

What are examples of people who only use absolute FoRs?

A

Speakers of Guugu Yimithirr (Australia) & speakers of Tzeltal (Mexico)

75
Q

What do speakers of Guugu Yimithirr rely on to demonstrate their perception of space?

A

An approximation of the whereabouts of north, south, east, & west (e.g., “there’s an ant on your south leg”).

76
Q

What do speakers of Tzeltal rely on to demonstrate their perception of space?

A

2 fixed (opposing) bearings- uphill & downhill (e.g. “the fork is uphill of the spoon”).

77
Q

What must you know at all times & in all locations if you use an absolute FoR in all situations?

A

Where your conventional fixed bearings are (e.g. the direction of “north”/ “uphill” locally).

78
Q

Who carried out a study into whether language can restructure cognition in 2004?

A

Majid et al.

79
Q

What does the 1st player in the dictator game determine?

A

How to split an endowment (such as a cash prize) between themselves & a second player (typically anonymous)

80
Q

What do the 1st players rarely give the 2nd players in the dictator game?

A

Nothing

81
Q

What does the fact that 1st players rarely give 2nd players nothing in the dictator game suggest?

A

That they take norms about fairness into account

82
Q

What is strongly influenced by culture in the dictator game?

A

The mean offer that adult participants provide.

83
Q

Who asked pairs of children (4-11 years old) to play a game in which magnetic cubes had to be fished out of 2 containers?

A

Shaefer et al. (2015)

84
Q

In Shaefer et al.’s 2015 study, in which conditions did the experimenter place a tank filled with 12 cubes in front of each child?

A

In the equal-merit & unequal-merit conditions

85
Q

In Shaefer et al.’s 2015 study, how was the game fixed?

A

So children could either fish out an equal number (6:6) or an unequal number (9:3).

86
Q

In Shaefer et al.’s 2015 study, what happened after the game was fixed?

A

The cubes were replaced with a corresponding number of rewards (12 sweets or stickers), placed in front of the children.

87
Q

In Shaefer et al.’s 2015 study, what happened after rewards were placed in front of the children?

A

The children were left 2 minutes to divide them up.

88
Q

What are characteristics of middle-class German children?

A

They are individualistic & egalitarian

89
Q

In Shaefer et al.’s 2015 study, how did the middle-class German children divide the rewards?

A

Based on how productive the other individuals had been.

90
Q

How are Samburu children from Kenya raised?

A

They are raised in a community of subsistent live-stock farmers.

90
Q

In Shaefer et al.’s 2015 study, how did the Samburu children from Kenya divide the rewards?

A

They did not take merit into account (there was little systematic pattern in their distributions).

91
Q

How are Akhoe Haillom children from Namibia raised?

A

In egalitarian forager societies that rely on gathering bush food.

92
Q

In Shaefer et al.’s 2015 study, how did the Akhoe Haillom children from Namibia divide the rewards?

A

They shared them more equally than the middle-class German children & the Samburu children from Kenya.

93
Q

What did Charles Darwin (1809-1882) state in “The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals” (1872)?

A

That “the same state of mind is expressed throughout the world with remarkable uniformity”.

94
Q

What did Darwin cite in “The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals”?

A

The answers to 16 questions he sent to Englishmen living/ travelling in 8 parts of the world: Africa, America, Borneo, Australia, China, India, Malaysia, & New Zealand.

95
Q

What did the questions asked by Darwin to Englishmen living/ travelling in 8 parts of the world ask?

A

Whether they saw the same expressions of emotion in those foreign lands as they had known in England.

96
Q

What was the response of the Englishmen living/ travelling in 8 parts of the world to Darwin about whether they had seen the same expressions of emotion in those foreign lands as they had known in England?

A

That yes, they had seen the same expressions of emotion in those foreign lands as they had known in England.

97
Q

What did Darwin conclude from the responses to the questions he had asked Englishmen living/ travelling in 8 parts of the world?

A

That human emotions are the same everywhere.

98
Q

What type of culture is the Fore community in New Guinea?

A

A preliterate one.

99
Q

Who did Ekman & Friesen carry out their study on in 1971?

A

People from the Fore community in New Guinea.

100
Q

In Ekman & Friesen’s study, what did the faces of the people from the Fore community in New Guinea look like when they were instructed to demonstrate what their faces would look like if they were about to fight?

A

Their mouths formed lines, their nostrils were flared, & their eyebrows were furrowed.

101
Q

In Ekman & Friesen’s study, what did the faces of the people from the Fore community in New Guinea look like when they were instructed to demonstrate what their faces would look like if they had learnt that their children had died?

A

Their mouths and noses were relaxed, & their foreheads were tensed up.

102
Q

In Ekman & Friesen’s study, what did the faces of the people from the Fore community in New Guinea look like when they were instructed to demonstrate what their faces would look like if they had met their friends?

A

They smiled, and their foreheads tensed up, and their nostrils expanded.

103
Q

What did Ekman & Friesen discover that was consistent with the adaptation hypothesis?

A

That individuals can produce & recognise certain expressions despite belonging to communities that have little/ no contact with the wider world.

Social Psychology (11 decks)

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