Culture

Question 1

What is culture?

Answer 1

Cognitive processes & practices that identify a specific social group, their values, rituals, customs, traditions & social behaviours.

Question 2

Who can culture be applied to?

Answer 2

Social collectives of all sizes (e.g. nations, families, work groups, organisations & local communities)

Question 3

Which fields does culture overlap with?

Answer 3

Anthropology, sociology & developmental & business psychology.

Question 4

How can cultures differ?

Answer 4

In the nature of their economy, education levels, values, languages, environments, religions, political systems, traditions, wealth & technology.

Question 5

Are people from the UK individualistic or collectivistic?

Answer 5

Individualistic

Question 6

Are people from China individualistic or collectivistic?

Answer 6

Collectivistic

Question 7

What did Hofstede distribute to 117,000 managers of a large multinational corporation in 40 different countries?

Answer 7

A values questionnaire

Question 8

How many important dimensions did Hofstede identify to compare the 40 different countries that took part in his questionnaires?

Answer 8

4

Question 9

What are the important dimensions that Hofstede identified to compare the 40 different countries that took part in his questionnaires?

Answer 9

Individualism-collectivism, masculinity-femininity, uncertainty avoidance & power distance

Question 10

What does the individualism-collectivism dimension used by Hofstede to compare the 40 different countries that took part in his questionnaire entail?

Answer 10

How closely people within a society are integrated into a group (e.g. how much people value their own personal glory relative to the success of a group)

Question 11

What does the masculinity-femininity dimension used by Hofstede to compare the 40 different countries that took part in his questionnaire entail?

Answer 11

How much attributes that are either traditionally masculine or feminine are valued (masculine attributes could be achieving, gaining & competitive, while feminine attributes could be promoting inter-personal harmony & caring)

Question 12

What does the uncertainty avoidance dimension used by Hofstede to compare the 40 different countries that took part in his questionnaire entail?

Answer 12

The degree to which people seek to reduce uncertainty & act inflexibly or are tolerant of certain outcomes (an example of acting inflexibly could be believing that rules & traditions should always be followed)

Question 13

What does the power distance dimension used by Hofstede to compare the 40 different countries that took part in his questionnaire entail?

Answer 13

The degree to which unequal power in institutions is accepted vs. the extent to which egalitarianism is endorsed (can employers openly disagree with managers?)

Question 14

How did Danish employees score on Hoftstede’s cultural dimension of individualism-collectivism?

Answer 14

They scored high on his dimension of individualism (0.74)

Question 15

How did Danish employees score on Hoftstede’s cultural dimension of masculinity-femininity?

Answer 15

They scored low on his dimension of masculinity (0.16).

Question 16

How did Danish employees score on Hoftstede’s cultural dimension of uncertainty avoidance?

Answer 16

They scored low (0.23)

Question 17

How did Danish employees score on Hoftstede’s cultural dimension of power distance?

Answer 17

They scored low (0.18).

Question 18

What do Danes not easily accept?

Answer 18

Hierarchical (autocratic) relationship structures.

Question 19

What do Danes tend to be tolerant of in relation to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions?

Answer 19

Uncertain outcomes

Question 20

Which qualities do Danes have?

Answer 20

They are caring & egalitarian

Question 21

How do Danes determine their identities?

Answer 21

Through their own choices & achievements.

Question 22

How did Japanese employees score on Hoftstede’s cultural dimension of individualism-collectivism?

Answer 22

They scored low on his dimension of individualism (0.46)

Question 23

How did Japanese employees score on Hoftstede’s cultural dimension of masculinity-femininity?

Answer 23

They scored high on his dimension of masculinity (0.95).

Question 24

How did Japanese employees score on Hoftstede’s cultural dimension of uncertainty avoidance?

Answer 24

They scored high (0.92)

Question 25

How did Japanese employees score on Hoftstede's cultural dimension of power distance?

Answer 25

They scored medium (0.54)

Question 26

What do the Japanese follow?

Answer 26

Rules & traditions

Question 27

What kind of outcomes do the Japanese seek in relation to Hofstede's cultural dimensions?

Answer 27

Clear-cut ones

Question 28

What do the Japanese do to achieve & gain material success in relation to Hofstede's cultural dimensions?

Answer 28

They work hard

Question 29

How many ways are there in which we can conceive of all cultural differences?

Answer 29

Many

Question 30

What is 1 important dimension involved in conceiving all cultural differences?

Answer 30

The interdependence-independence dimension

Question 31

What do independent cultures emphasise?

Answer 31

Autonomy, individual decision-making & personal distinctiveness

Question 32

What are examples of independent cultures?

Answer 32

The USA & Germany

Question 33

What do interdependent cultures emphasise?

Answer 33

Social connection, conformity & relations with others.

Question 34

What are examples of interdependent cultures?

Answer 34

China & Turkey

Question 35

What are norms?

Answer 35

Formal/ informal rules or expectations that determine the conduct of group members.

Question 36

Who asserted that tight cultures have strong, homogenous norms & little tolerance for deviant behaviour, whereas loose cultures have weaker norms & greater tolerance for deviant behaviour?

Answer 36

Pelto (1968)

Question 37

Who found that southern states (e.g. Mississippi, Alabama & Arkansas) had tighter cultural norms than western states (e.g. California, Oregon & Washington)

Answer 37

Harrington & Gelfand (2014)

Question 38

Which cultures emphasise honour & social status, particularly for males, & the role of aggression in protecting that honour?

Answer 38

Honour cultures

Question 39

In societies that aren't honour cultures (e.g. GB, Canada, & the northern US states), how is violence viewed?

Answer 39

As a disproportionate response to a personal/ familial insult.

Question 40

What kind of cultures in individualistic societies often emphasise threats to an individual's sense of respect/ masculinity?

Answer 40

Honour cultures (e.g. Brazil, Chile & the southern US)

Question 41

What kind of cultures in collectivist societies often emphasise threats to the honour of a family/ community?

Answer 41

Honour cultures (e.g. Pakistan & Turkey)

Question 42

What kind of students listened to audiotapes of a husband describing a violent conflict with his wife in Vandello et al.'s study in 2009?

Answer 42

Chilean & Canadian students

Question 43

In Vandello et al.'s study in 2009, which group of students rated the husband & his actions more positively than the Canadians when the conflict was triggered by his wife apparently flirting with another man?

Answer 43

The Chilean students

Question 44

In Vandello et al.'s study in 2009, how many cultural differences were seen when the conflict was unrelated to jealousy (e.g. the wife had spent too much money)?

Answer 44

No cultural differences were seen.

Question 45

What does 'WEIRD' stand for in relation to culture?

Answer 45

Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich, & Democratic

Question 46

How much psychological research assumes that studies conducted within Western populations will generalise to other cultures (i.e. that Western populations are 'standard' & that there is little cross-cultural variation)?

Answer 46

Most psychological research

Question 47

What are rarely tested in multiple cultures?

Answer 47

Paradigms

Question 48

What may, in fact, be particularly unusual cultures?

Answer 48

Western populations

Question 49

What are examples of cultural differences?

Answer 49

Differences in social norms, marriage traditions, child care, meal times, obedience to authority, intelligence levels, perception of space & volume in public.

Question 50

What do Western approaches believe intelligence entails?

Answer 50

Academic & cognitive skills, processing speed, generalisation & extrapolation, rule learning, task completion with the fewest possible steps, & creative thinking.

Question 51

What do Chinese philosophers believe intelligence entails?

Answer 51

Benevolence & doing the right thing (Confucian perspective), humility, freedom from conventional standards of judgement, & a full knowledge of oneself (Taoist tradition)

Question 52

What do African cultures often emphasise in relation to intelligence?

Answer 52

Social competence

Question 53

Who emphasise social responsibilities, cooperativeness, obedience & respect for elders?

Answer 53

Chewa adults in Zambia

Question 54

Who emphasise responsible participation in the family & in social situations?

Answer 54

Kenyan parents

Question 55

Where does the word for intelligence ("ngware") actually mean to be prudent & cautious in social relationships?

Answer 55

In Zimbabwe

Question 56

Which survey revealed conceptions of what it means to be intelligent?

Answer 56

A survey of parents carried out in San Jose (California)

Question 57

In a survey of parents carried out in San Jose (California), which type of parents tended to emphasise the importance of social competence?

Answer 57

Those of Mexican heritage

Question 58

In a survey of parents carried out in San Jose (California), which type of parents tended to emphasise the importance of cognitive skills?

Answer 58

Anglo & Asian parents.

Question 59

What is an example of a cultural difference?

Answer 59

Difference in intelligence

Question 60

In a survey of Chinese & Australian students, which group of students viewed memory of facts as being important for intelligence?

Answer 60

The Chinese group of students

Question 61

In a survey of Chinese & Australian students, which group of students viewed memory of facts as only being of trivial importance for intelligence?

Answer 61

The Australian group of students

Question 62

What is an example of one of the few intelligence tests that are described as "culture-fair"?

Answer 62

Raven's Progressive Matrices Test (1936)

Question 63

Which type of intelligence test seeks to measure general intelligence ('g') in a way that is minimally affected by general knowledge, vocabulary, & experience of formal testing?

Answer 63

"Culture-fair" intelligence tests

Question 64

Which type of intelligence test measures "intelligence" as conceived by Western cultures, despite their scores being perhaps less affected by socio-economic status & formal education than other IQ tests?

Answer 64

"Culture-fair" intelligence tests

Question 65

What is an example of what Raven's Progressive Matrices Test looks like?

Answer 65

Various shapes each consisting of a number of divisions, & shaded differently.

Question 66

How can the spatial relationship between objects be described in different ways?

Answer 66

By using different frames of reference (FoRs)

Question 67

Which perspective is associated with a relative FoR?

Answer 67

The viewer's perspective (e.g. the viewer says, "The fork is to the left of the spoon", but when you go around to the other side of the table, the fork would now properly be described as being to the right of the spoon).

Question 68

Which perspective is associated with an absolute FoR?

Answer 68

A perspective involving an external framework (e.g. north, east, south, & west).

Question 69

What is an example of a statement from an absolute FoR?

Answer 69

"The fork is to the north of the spoon"

Question 69

How are spatial relations described from an intrinsic FoR?

Answer 69

Without reference to either yourself/ any other external system of coordinates (e.g. "the fork is at the nose of the spoon")

Question 70

Who use 2 different FoRs to describe spatial relationships?

Answer 70

English speakers

Question 71

How might English speakers demonstrate their perception of space?

Answer 71

By either saying, "The fork is to the left of the spoon" (if they're using a relative FoR)/ "The fork is beside the spoon" (if they're using an intrinsic FoR)

Question 72

What is an example of a sentence that English speakers would not say to demonstrate their perception of space?

Answer 72

"The fork is to the north of the spoon" (which could be used from an absolute FoR)

Question 73

In how many languages are only absolute FoRs used by their speakers?

Answer 73

Some

Question 74

What are examples of people who only use absolute FoRs?

Answer 74

Speakers of Guugu Yimithirr (Australia) & speakers of Tzeltal (Mexico)

Question 75

What do speakers of Guugu Yimithirr rely on to demonstrate their perception of space?

Answer 75

An approximation of the whereabouts of north, south, east, & west (e.g., "there's an ant on your south leg").

Question 76

What do speakers of Tzeltal rely on to demonstrate their perception of space?

Answer 76

2 fixed (opposing) bearings- uphill & downhill (e.g. "the fork is uphill of the spoon").

Question 77

What must you know at all times & in all locations if you use an absolute FoR in all situations?

Answer 77

Where your conventional fixed bearings are (e.g. the direction of "north"/ "uphill" locally).

Question 78

Who carried out a study into whether language can restructure cognition in 2004?

Answer 78

Majid et al.

Question 79

What does the 1st player in the dictator game determine?

Answer 79

How to split an endowment (such as a cash prize) between themselves & a second player (typically anonymous)

Question 80

What do the 1st players rarely give the 2nd players in the dictator game?

Answer 80

Nothing

Question 81

What does the fact that 1st players rarely give 2nd players nothing in the dictator game suggest?

Answer 81

That they take norms about fairness into account

Question 82

What is strongly influenced by culture in the dictator game?

Answer 82

The mean offer that adult participants provide.

Question 83

Who asked pairs of children (4-11 years old) to play a game in which magnetic cubes had to be fished out of 2 containers?

Answer 83

Shaefer et al. (2015)

Question 84

In Shaefer et al.'s 2015 study, in which conditions did the experimenter place a tank filled with 12 cubes in front of each child?

Answer 84

In the equal-merit & unequal-merit conditions

Question 85

In Shaefer et al.'s 2015 study, how was the game fixed?

Answer 85

So children could either fish out an equal number (6:6) or an unequal number (9:3).

Question 86

In Shaefer et al.'s 2015 study, what happened after the game was fixed?

Answer 86

The cubes were replaced with a corresponding number of rewards (12 sweets or stickers), placed in front of the children.

Question 87

In Shaefer et al.'s 2015 study, what happened after rewards were placed in front of the children?

Answer 87

The children were left 2 minutes to divide them up.

Question 88

What are characteristics of middle-class German children?

Answer 88

They are individualistic & egalitarian

Question 89

In Shaefer et al.'s 2015 study, how did the middle-class German children divide the rewards?

Answer 89

Based on how productive the other individuals had been.

Question 90

How are Samburu children from Kenya raised?

Answer 90

They are raised in a community of subsistent live-stock farmers.

Question 90

In Shaefer et al.'s 2015 study, how did the Samburu children from Kenya divide the rewards?

Answer 90

They did not take merit into account (there was little systematic pattern in their distributions).

Question 91

How are Akhoe Haillom children from Namibia raised?

Answer 91

In egalitarian forager societies that rely on gathering bush food.

Question 92

In Shaefer et al.'s 2015 study, how did the Akhoe Haillom children from Namibia divide the rewards?

Answer 92

They shared them more equally than the middle-class German children & the Samburu children from Kenya.

Question 93

What did Charles Darwin (1809-1882) state in "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals" (1872)?

Answer 93

That "the same state of mind is expressed throughout the world with remarkable uniformity".

Question 94

What did Darwin cite in "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals"?

Answer 94

The answers to 16 questions he sent to Englishmen living/ travelling in 8 parts of the world: Africa, America, Borneo, Australia, China, India, Malaysia, & New Zealand.

Question 95

What did the questions asked by Darwin to Englishmen living/ travelling in 8 parts of the world ask?

Answer 95

Whether they saw the same expressions of emotion in those foreign lands as they had known in England.

Question 96

What was the response of the Englishmen living/ travelling in 8 parts of the world to Darwin about whether they had seen the same expressions of emotion in those foreign lands as they had known in England?

Answer 96

That yes, they had seen the same expressions of emotion in those foreign lands as they had known in England.

Question 97

What did Darwin conclude from the responses to the questions he had asked Englishmen living/ travelling in 8 parts of the world?

Answer 97

That human emotions are the same everywhere.

Question 98

What type of culture is the Fore community in New Guinea?

Answer 98

A preliterate one.

Question 99

Who did Ekman & Friesen carry out their study on in 1971?

Answer 99

People from the Fore community in New Guinea.

Question 100

In Ekman & Friesen's study, what did the faces of the people from the Fore community in New Guinea look like when they were instructed to demonstrate what their faces would look like if they were about to fight?

Answer 100

Their mouths formed lines, their nostrils were flared, & their eyebrows were furrowed.

Question 101

In Ekman & Friesen's study, what did the faces of the people from the Fore community in New Guinea look like when they were instructed to demonstrate what their faces would look like if they had learnt that their children had died?

Answer 101

Their mouths and noses were relaxed, & their foreheads were tensed up.

Question 102

In Ekman & Friesen's study, what did the faces of the people from the Fore community in New Guinea look like when they were instructed to demonstrate what their faces would look like if they had met their friends?

Answer 102

They smiled, and their foreheads tensed up, and their nostrils expanded.

Question 103

What did Ekman & Friesen discover that was consistent with the adaptation hypothesis?

Answer 103

That individuals can produce & recognise certain expressions despite belonging to communities that have little/ no contact with the wider world.