Cultural/Linguistically Diverse Assessments

Question 1

U.S. Department of Education (2013): “Our Nation’s English Learners”

Answer 1

Between the 2009–10 and 2014–15 school years, the percentage of EL students
increased in more than half of the states, with increases of over 40 percent in five
states”
○ “Under the Every Student Succeeds Act, states must annually assess the English
language proficiency of ELs, provide reasonable accommodations for them on
state assessments, and develop new accountability systems that include
long-term goals and measures of progress for ELs.”
○ “While Spanish was the most common language spoken by ELs at home in
2014–15, in some states there was more variation in the home language. The
need to support less commonly spoken languages could also be different across
school districts”.
2

Question 2

Cultural and Linguistic Diversity (

Answer 2

Culture- “shared framework of meanings within which a population shapes its way of life”
○ Societal roles, family structure, education, religious beliefs, standards of health, dress,
diet, child rearing practices.
◉ Unique outlook: Pervasive throughout lives
◉ Cultural variants: See Table 5.1
○ Differences from U.S. culture: culturally sensitive
■ Ex. Navajo culture: values quiet, introspective persona
○ Other cultures: differences affecting communication (pragmatics, language partners,
language expression etc.)
○ Non-linguistic/paralinguistic characteristics–eye contact, facial expressions, gestures,
communication space, rules for turn-taking, interruption rules, use of silence/laughter,
greeting/salutations, roles, politeness, forms of address….

Question 3

Cultural/Linguistically Diverse Assessments

Answer 3

Input: differences in input if learning two languages
○ Strong link between language experience and language
development
◉ Problem with identification
○ Overidentification: they are are diagnosed with a disorder but it is just a language difference.
○ Underidentification: they are say that they don’t have a disorder and its just a language difference but it is a language disorder.
◉ Dialectal differences: difficulty?
◉ Standardized testing: problem?
◉ ** Disorder vs. difference??
4

Question 4

Basic preparation skills

Answer 4

*U.S.-Approximately 2% CCC-SLPs can provide services in languages other
than English
◉ Basic preparation skills
○ Lack of academic preparation for working with culturally diverse
populations
○ Lack of familiarity with culture/cultural awareness
■ Interpreters can help (when appropriate)
○ Learning: Reading, observation, questioning
○ *Understanding cultural outlook to health, disability, causation…
○ *Culture: assessment and intervention
○ Family role in functional intervention

Question 5

How can SLPs increase their skills with culturally/linguistically diverse groups?

Answer 5

*Become familiar with culture/language of children: service delivery**
2. Interact more with individuals–culture/language background
3. Coursework: foreign language course/cultural diversity course
4. Join cultural organizations/attend various festivals
5. Volunteer with culturally diverse youth
6. Join various groups in school/online to foster cultural and linguistic
understanding
7. Bilingual SLP-A–assistant, in certain states
**Training!!

Question 6

Overidentification and Underidentification of Language
Impairments (

Answer 6

Overrepresentation and Underrepresentation of minority students –both in SPED
and Related Services
○ U.S. Department of Education: “Disproportionality”
○ No fail-safe method, but using a broad range of unbiased sources in a rich,
multi-faceted assessment is helpful (Munoz et al., 2014)
◉ Overidentification
○ Dialectical difference: Rural Alabama–African American children exhibit
final consonant deletion (FCD) later in development (Owens, 2014)

Question 7

Sequential Bilingualism vs. Simultaneous Bilingualism

Answer 7

Simultaneous bilingual: learns 2 language simultaneously from birth
(prior to age 3)
◉ Sequential bilingual: learns 1 language first, then another (after age 3)
○ Successive bilingualism/second language acquisition
○ Childhood/early bilingual, late bilingual
Advantages? Disadvantages?
Bilingual terminology:
-early/childhood bilingual
-late bilingual
-elective bilingual
-balanced bilingualism 9

Question 8

Sequential Bilingualism vs. Simultaneous Bilingualism

Answer 8

Simultaneous:
○ Advantages in executive function skill compared to monolinguals
and L2 learners of second language (Owens, 2014)
◉ Sequential:
○ L1 reaches a level of maturity before L2 acquisition
○ May maximize interference between the 2 languages
■ Interference: influence of one language on the learning of
another
○ ‘Second Language Learners’ (English Language Learners-ELLs)
■ May appear to have LD
○ Exposure to L2 after age 6→ may take 5-7 years for age appropriate
cognitive/academic language acquisition
○ Can create L1 issues: not fully developed
10

Question 9

Sequential Bilingualism: L1 and L2

Answer 9

L1 foundation for L2 learning–transference!
◉ Learning L2 in school: Possible issues:
○ L1 usage: What can occur?
○ Poor base L1 before learning L2–what can occur?
○ Strong base L1 before learning L2–what can occur?
◉ Language Value: U.S. and other countries
○ Monolingualism v bilingualism
○ Familial value
○ Bilingual educational policy:
■ Transitional bilingual program–2-3 years of bilingual education prior
to monolingual English program

Question 10

Programs in NYCDOE

Answer 10

**ENL: English as a New Language–all NYC schools
● Dual Language Bilingual Education (DLBE): The goal of this program is
for your child to read, write, and speak in both languages. After your child
is no longer an English Language Learner (ELL), your child will stay in the
program to learn and improve both languages.
● Transitional Bilingual Education (TBE): In these programs, as your child
gets better in English, they will spend more time learning in English and
spend less time learning in the home language. When your child is no
longer an English Language Learner (ELL), they leave the program

Question 11

Bilingualism: Factors to Consider

Answer 11

Bilingualism
○ Different patterns of acquisition; showing dominance in 1
language, or equal facility
■ Determining factors:
● Maternal (parental) input
● Amount of exposure
● Conditions under which language was presented
13

Question 12

Code switching:

Answer 12

Code switching: language practice of changing language (code) in
sentence/conversation at *permissible places in conversation
○ May provide disadvantages/advantages
◉ Normal behaviors→Mistaken for Impairments
○ Code switching:
■ Adult models
■ Positive/negative intrusions, not modeled
○ Dominant vs. non-dominant language
■ Insufficient exposure?
■ Assess both languages with different testing materials
■ Dodson (1981): “preferred language”
14

Question 13

Dialects and Language Learning (

Answer 13

Dialect: Form of the language that is spoken in a particular part of the country or by a
particular group of people; “neutral label to refer to any variety of a language which is
shared by a group of speakers” (Wolfram, 1991).
◉ American English (AE): Includes social/regional dialects
○ Legitimate language system; rule-governed
○ Systematic, highly regular
○ Cross all linguistic parameters (i.e., phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics,
lexicon, pragmatics etc.)
○ Language diversity: African-American English (AAE), Appalachian English (AE),
and Standard American English (SAE)
○ Linguistic system: differences, has typical language patterns
○ Dialect switch: changes can happen as the child ages, in expression:
speaking/writing
■ AAE: Third/eighth graders: 3rd grade comparable dialectical use
speaking/writing; 8th grade dialectal features used more in speaking

Question 14

SLP and Dialects

Answer 14

SLP & Dialect: Affects pronunciation, syntax, morphology, word usage
○ High density dialect: overdiagnosed
○ Language impairment: underdiagnosed
◉ Knowing/Learning features of the dialect:
○ Rules/linguistic features
○ Ex. variable use of morphological markers (past tense ‘ed’: mixed, walked)
and passive particles (ex. taken, eaten)
◉ Needs to DISTINGUISH between regular patterns v. irregular language
representing a disorder of speech/language
◉ Social & Ethical Responsibility: Discuss dialect
○ Social/emotional, professional ramifications of second dialect acquisition

Question 15

SLP and Dialects (Owens, 2014; ASHA, 2023)
Overcoming bias

Answer 15

Overcoming bias: Differences due to dialect variation or disorder? Most standardized tests will not
differentiate!
◉ Measures to overcome bias in testing
○ Community judgements of typical use
○ Using test items in familiar contexts/thematic contexts
○ Comparing child’s production to parent’s production
○ *Creating local norms for evaluating test responses–service delivery caseload, as
needed
◉ Other measures
○ Standardized test: Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Variation (DELV, 2003)–syntax,
semantics, phonology, pragmatics for ages 4:0-9:11
○ Oral (language) sample analysis; spontaneous speech–naturalistic
○ Dynamic assessment: test-teach-retest strategy

Question 16

Elective Services

Answer 16

Elective Services
The traditional role of the speech-language pathologist has been to provide clinical services to
individuals with communication disorders. It is also within the scope of practice for
speech-language pathologists to provide elective services. Given that SAE is the linguistic variety
used by the government, the mass media, business, education, science, and the arts in the United
States, speakers of other varieties of American English may find it advantageous to be able to
speak SAE. In these cases, the role of the speech-language pathologist is to assist in the
acquisition of the desired competency in the second dialect without jeopardizing the integrity of the
individual’s first dialect. The approach of the elective service must be functional and must
emphasize the appropriateness of the first and second dialects for different contexts (ASHA, 2023,
emphasis added)
https://www.asha.org/policy/tr2003-00044/

Question 17

Socio-economic status (SES) and Poverty

Answer 17

Homelessness & SES:
○ At risk for learning delays, language delays which can negatively
affect school performance
◉ *Great variety within SES groups; maternal input as more accurate
predictor of language proficiency than SES (Fernald et al., 2015; Hoff, 2003

Question 18

Problems of Assessment

Answer 18

Lack of assessment tools appropriate for population!
◉ Few non-biased normed, standardized tests
◉ Language translations (i.e. Spanish) do not consider dialect differences
○ At times, normed on monolingual children—discriminatory!
○ Decisions cannot be made regarding services re: formal testing
procedures
◉ Most standardized tests don’t account for bilingual development,
differences (Munoz, White, and Horton-Ikard, 2014)
○

Question 19

Goal: Non-biased Assessment Process

Answer 19

Diagnostic Framework: Data collection/analysis
◉ Pre-evaluation:
○ Consider culture/language or dialect
○ Consider referral, language history, educational history
○ Overall hypothesis disorder v. difference
○ Pre-referral process: What language(s) to assess?
◉ Interview parents/teachers
○ Understanding of child’s developmental milestones/skills
○ Performance home/school
◉ Academic activities, informal speech-language probes

Question 20

Goal: Non-biased Assessment Process (Owens., 2014)
◉ Overall question

Answer 20

Overall question: “Is this child an effective communicator in his or her
communicative environment?”
◉ Data gathering/collection: parents, various teachers, therapists etc.
○ Checklists, performance scales
○ Parents as accurate reporters!
○ ELLs: specifically important, as per language skills (L1, L2)
◉ Setting of assessment–comfort of child/parent
◉ Observation of naturalistic language skills
○ Different language settings, different communication partners
◉ Interpreter
○ Preparation! Comfort of SLP/interpreter
◉ Language sample–collection and later analysis (different languages? recording?)

Question 21

Goal: Non-biased Assessment Process (Munoz et al., 2014)
◉ Interpreters

Answer 21

nterpreters–translated portions of tests as necessary
○ Translated tests may have missed aspects of language–impairments
specific to that language
◉ Non-standardized assessment materials
○ Know language development in native language
○ Consider child’s performance–skills he/she should have in native language
◉ Using formal, standardized tests
○ Use English tests descriptively; can’t compare/record norms
○ Balance with non-standardized items; do not use formal tests alone!
○ Language samples, narrative samples
○ Dynamic assessments

Question 22

Goal: Non-biased Assessment Process (Munoz et al., 2014, Owens,
2014)
◉ Formal testing (

Answer 22

Formal testing (Owens, 2014)
○ Modified procedures; scores will be invalid
○ Descriptive modified procedures
○ Parent/adult (with no impairment) sample to compare with child
○ Can possibly utilize tests that assess memory/perception
◉ Using formal, standardized tests (Munoz et al., 2014)
○ Use English tests descriptively; can’t compare/record norms
○ Balance with non-standardized items; do not use formal tests alone!
○ Language samples, narrative samples
○ Dynamic assessments
Goal: Disorder or difference? **Speech/language is a complex and dynamic process!

Question 23

Testing in Two Languages

Answer 23

Important to assess ELLs in two languages
◉ SLP needs to know/record:
○ Age of exposure to L1 and L2
○ Extent of exposure to L1 and L2
○ Ability to use L1 and L2
○ Comparative linguistic structures (and contrasting, as needed)
○ Individual child differences
◉ Bilingual assessment:
○ Primary language
○ Language dominance (4 modalities)
○ Language proficiency in L1/L2
■ *children from monolingual L1 homes–best to test stronger L1
and then weaker language
■ *children with poor competence in both–simultaneous testing

Question 24

Assessment: Dynamic Assessment

Answer 24

Dynamic Assessment: Method of evaluation used to identify child’s skills and
learning potential
○ Emphasis on the learning process itself (process oriented)
○ Therapist: tasks are highly interactive–best way to facilitate child’s learning
○ Goal: ability of child to communicate/learn
○ **How does the child respond to learning?
◉ Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978)–difference between child’s
current performance on a task & the amount of guided assistance needed by the
child to be successful
◉ Preparation is KEY–familiarity, how to administer
28

Question 25

Test-teach-retest

Answer 25

Dynamic assessment–emphasize ability to communicate & learn language (ex. rather than the
grammar itself)
○ Test-teach-retest
■ Baseline of child’s ability assessed
■ Focus: HOW does the child learn?
■ Non-biased assessment:
■ SLP assesses how modifiable/stimulable the child is/how the child responds to
specific adult support & then retests afterwards
■ MLE: mediated learning experience
● Individualized approach to response/strategies used by child
● Includes explaining the importance of learning/involvement
● Works on maintaining child’s involvement in learning
● Focuses child’s attention on important features–relevance/importance
● Bridges concepts from immediate experience
● Strategic, deliberate approach–manipulating task to show child success
● Gives evaluative feedback
○
29

Question 26

Testing the limits

Answer 26

Dynamic assessment–emphasize ability to communicate & learn language (ex.
rather than the grammar itself)
○ Testing the limits
■ SLP probes behind a child’s response
■ SLP uses elaborate feedback/verbal explanations by the child
■ Goal: child to understand his understanding of task & way child
arrived at the response

Question 27

Graduated prompting

Answer 27

Method to probe child’s readiness to learn
■ Subtle manipulation of prompts needed–level of support child needs
for success (bridge the gap between prior knowledge and task
requirements)

Question 28

BICS & CALP

Answer 28

BICS: Basic interpersonal communication skills
○ Language necessary for day-to-day communication with friends etc.
○ Informal conversation/interaction, speaking on phone etc.
○ Discuss objects/experiences in face-to-face, everyday context
○ Context embedded language; proficiency approximately 2 years
◉ CALP: Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency
○ Language for academic success (all 4 modalities)
○ Reading/writing essays, content curriculum
○ School specific: goal for academic work success; complex language
○ Context reduced language; language more abstract; proficiency
approximately 5-7 years
◉ Educators need to understand differences between BICS and CALP; how it
affects child’s social skills and academic skills/success vs. lack thereof