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Cull lectures Flashcards

1
Q

Non specific cells involved in immune response

A

Phagocytes
granulocytes

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2
Q

Specific cells involved with immune response

A

T cells
B cells

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3
Q

Innate immunity

A

Barrier defences and molecular recognition of traits shared by a broad range of pathogens (ie non specific)

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4
Q

Adaptive

A

Specific recognition of pathogens through use of receptors that recognise features on a particular pathogen

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5
Q

Innate vs adaptive

A

INNATE
non specific
Response to subsequent exposure is same as first exposure
no memory cells
immunity - unchanged from birth

ADAPTIVE
specific
subsequent exposure leads to faster and stronger response
memory cells
immunity accquired through lifetime and exposure

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6
Q

Innate immunity mechanisms

A

Physical barriers - prevent entry of substances
Internal barrier:
Chemical mediators - prevent cell entry, cause inflammation, stimulate adaptive immune response
Phagocytosis - destruction of pathogenic cell

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7
Q

Chemical mediator inflammatory response

A
  1. Vasodilation - increases blood flow to area - bring more phagocytes and WBC to site
  2. Phagocytes and WBC move from blood to tissue - macrophages and neutrophils remove waste - dead pathogens and cell debris - pus
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8
Q

Local inflammation

A

A immune response confined to the site of infection or injury , involves inflammation to that specific area.

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9
Q

Systemic inflammation

A

An immune response that affects the entire body. Eg. A fever is a systemic response triggered by substances released by macrophages in response to certain pathogens

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10
Q

Where are 5-10% of leukocytes found

A

Lymphatic system
Spleen, lymph nodes, bone marrow

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11
Q

NK cells

A

target and cause destruction of infected host cells.
1. release perforin - punches holes into infected cell opening up channels leading to cytolysis
OR
2. Release granzymes - induce self destruction
then remaining microbes are destroyed by phagocytosis

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12
Q

Neutrophils

A

innate immune response
phagocytosis
increase inflammation by releasing cytokines to attract more cells to infection site

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13
Q

Macrophages

A

innate response
phagocytosis
antigen presenting cells
clean up

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14
Q

dendritic cells

A

Antigen presenting cell
links innate to adaptive response

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15
Q

Eosinophils

A

innate immunity
found in mucosal surfaces
defend against multicellular

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16
Q

Stages of phagocytosis

A
  1. Chemotaxis/ detection
    Chemicals attract phagocyte to site of damage
  2. Adherence
    Phagocyte attaches to microbe by bound complement proteins
  3. Ingestion
    Pseudopod extends and surrounds microbe and fuses into a sac - phagosome
  4. digestion
    Phagolysozome forms. Lysozyme and other enzymes destroy pathogen
  5. Killing
    Microbe degraded anything left over is kept in residual body
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17
Q

Roles of lymphatic system

A
  • Distributes lymphs across body
  • Drain excess interstitial fluid
  • Transports dietary lipids
  • carries out immune response
  • macrophages reside in lymph nodes
  • dendritic cells migrate to lymph nodes after interaction with pathogens to stimulate adaptive immunity
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18
Q

How do pathogens avoid the innate immune response

A

Modify their surface to prevent recognition
resist breakdown following phagocytosis

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19
Q

Non self antigens

A

Found on foreign cells and recognized by immune system as foreign
eg. Micro-organisms and allergens

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20
Q

Self antigens

A

Found on surface of your own body cells so body recognises them as self antigens and doesn’t attack them
With autoimmune diseases the body attacks self antigens

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21
Q

how does the body recognise non self antigens

A

T or B cells bind via antigen receptors specific to one part of the pathogen

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22
Q

Epitope

A

Part of an antigen that elicits an immune response to create a specific antibody

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23
Q

Cell mediated response

A

Processed antigens activate leading to T cell production
Effectors ( Helper, cytotoxic, supressor) are involved in the destruction of antigens
Quick proliferation into memory and effector cells for next time.
intracellular process

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24
Q

Humoral

A

B cells
Secretes antibodies
extracellular
plasma cells

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25
Where are T cells and B cell developed
Red bone marrow
26
Where do T cells mature
Thymus above heart
27
Where do B cells mature
Bone marrow
28
Role of lymph vessels in immune response
Transport phagocytes and lymphocytes around the body
29
Role of secondary lymphatic organs(spleen and lymph nodes) in immune response
Home to many lymphocytes and macrophages
30
Clonal selections
Makes copies of plasma cells after encounter with antigen Lymphocytes copy and specialise All clones recognise original antigen increase number of specialise cells occurs in secondary lymphatic organ eg spleen Create effector and memory cells
31
Proliferate
Copy
32
Differentiate
specialise
33
plasma cells
Antibody synthesis specific to the pathogen
34
Memory cells
Remember a specific antigen Quickly proliferate into more memory and plasma cells so that next response is quicker
35
Structure of an antibody
4 poly peptide chains: 2 light chains 2 heavy chains variable regions on the light chain with antigen binding site constant regions Disulphide bridges
36
How do B cells activate to release antibodies
They bind to the epitope of the antigen via antigen receptors, which activates the B cells. Then they begin to secrete antibodies (immunoglobulin) that are the same shape as the original antigen receptor. Antibodies will bind to specific intact antigens in the blood and lymph to fight the infection.
37
4 ways antibodies disable antigens
Neutralise aggulation and precipitation immobilise activate complement
38
Neutralisation
Antibodies bind to viruses to block active site so they cant enter host cells
39
aggulation
antibodies clump multiple pathogens together and then they are destroyed by phagocytosis
40
immobilisation
Antibodies bind to antigens on the surface of motile pathogens (bacteria) making it harder for them to move. prevents pathogen spreading through tissue and makes phagocytosis easier.
41
active complement
antibodies bind to antigen and trigger a chain reaction of complement proteins in the blood. The proteins coat the pathogen to make phagocytosis easier and attract more immune cells to the infection site.
42
example of problem with T cells recognising self and non self antigens
Transplant - Antigens on donor organ are non self so could cause rejection of new organ
43
class 1 antigens
On all cells inserted into plasma membrane except RBC
44
class 2 antigens
found on antigen presenting cells eg B cells, macrophages, dendritic cells)
45
Endogenous process with MHC I molecules
1. digestion of antigen into peptide fragments 2. Packaged with MHC I molecules from ER 3. Packaged into a vesicle 4. Excocytosis - complex is inserted into plasma membrane 5. Cytoxic T cells recognise the antigen and begins cel mediated response
46
Exogenous process with MHC II molecules
1. Endocytosis of antigen 2. digestion of antigen to peptide fragments 3. Packaging of MHC II molecules into a vesicle 4. Vesicles with antigen and MHC II molecules fuse 5. Antigen peptides fuse to MHC II molecules 6. Vesicle undergoes excocytosis and is inserted into plasma membranes 7. activates T helper cells to recruit more immune cells
47
Structure of T cell antigen receptor
Alpha chain and beta chain Variable regions at top Constant regions below Antigen binding sight Disulphide bridges
48
What happens after antigen receptor binds to antigen
1. Activation - Cytotoxic cells bind to specific antigen and require co-stimulation of IL2 for CD8 to undergo clonal selection to form cytotoxic T and memory cytotoxic T cells 2. Elimination - CD8 cells eliminate infected cells (apoptosis or destruction of host cell) 3. Surveillance - Memory T cells made for faster response
49
Mass of the heart
250g W 300 g M
50
Where is the heart found
Mediastinum (between lungs and between sternum to vertebral column)
51
Pericardium
Heart is enclosed and held in place by the pericardium for protection
52
3 layers of the heart wall
Epicardium Myocardium endocardium
53
Endocardium
smooth layer to minimise friction
54
Fibrous pericardium
Bag Prevents overstretching apex fused to diaphragm
55
Parietal layer of the serous pericardium
thinner layer than the fibrous pericardium and more delicate double layer Outer layer fused to the fibrous pericardium
56
Myocardium
Cardiac muscle tissue pumping action form cardiac muscle fibers
57
Epicardium
Adheres to heart surface lubricated by pericardial fluid
58
What do the valves in the heart do
Initiate cardiac excitation Conduct action potential along the ventricle Strengthen cardiac contraction Blood only flows in one direction
59
Valves in heart
RIGHT aortic valve tricuspid valve LEFT pumonary valve Bicuspid valve
60
Valve stenosis
Valve won't open properly Blood flow restricted Heart has to pump harder to force blood through the narrow gap
61
Valve regurgitation
Valve wont close properly Blood leaks backward Heart has to work harder to pump required volume of blood through the heart
62
Autorythmic fibers
Self excitable Generate AP that causes heart contractions
63
Process of heart contraction
1. Action potential from SA node spreads through atria down to AV node - p waves 2. Atrial systole (contraction) and AP conducted to AV node so blood enters ventricle 3. Depolarization of purkinje fibres 4. ventricular systole - blood squeezed upwards to semilunar valves 5. Repolarization through ventricular myocardium - T wave 6. Ventricular diastole (relaxation)
64
Molecular overview of action potential in the ventricular contractile fibres (QRS)
1. Rapid depolarization due to Na+ inflow when voltage gated Na+ channels open 2. Plateu - due to Ca2+ inflow when voltage gated Ca2+ channels open and K+ outflow when some K+ channels open 3. Repolarization due to closure of Ca2+ channels and K+ outflow when additional K+ channels open
65
2 parts that make up the cardiovascular system
Circulator - made of blood vessels to transport blood Lymphatic - Made up of lymph nodes and vessels to transport lymph ( colourless body fluid)
66
5 functions of the circulatory system
Carry blood Exchange - substances to and from vessels and cells Transport Reegulate blood pressure Direct blood flow to tissues - maintain homeostasis
67
Blood distrbution
Most found in the systemic veins and venules
68
3 layers of a blood vessel
Tunica interna - intermost layer adjacent to lumen Tunica media - Middle layer smooth muscle and elastic fibers Tunica externa - outermost layer adjacent to surrounding tissue
69
Arteries
Carry blood away from the heart Have elastic walls to absorb impact from ventricles 2 types: Elastic - large diameter - elastic fibres - supply blood to muscular arteries Muscular - Medium diameter - smooth muscle - distribute blood
70
arterioles
Thin tunica interna Fenestrated (small pores) and thin internal elastic lamina tunica media - 2 layers of smooth muscle in circular orientation Terminal end - metarteriole (connects to a capillary bed) metarteriole-capillary junction: Precapillary sphincter (ring of smooth muscle located at the entracnce of the metarteriole capillary junction) Regulates blood flow into the capillaries
71
Types of capillary
Continuous - endothelial cells in continuous loop eg. CNS, lungs, muscle cells, and skin Fenestrated - Small pores eg Kidneys, vili, endocrine glands Sinusoids: Wider and winding Large fenestrations incomplete basement membrane eg Liver, red bone marrow
72
Venules
link capillaries to veins Drain capillary blood Thin walls - Don't keep shape Facilitate increase in blood volume up to 360%
73
Veins
Thin vascular layers Tunica externa - thick with collagen and elastic fibers Tunica interna - folds to form valves Large volume of blood Lower pressure than in arteries
74
How does substance exchange occur in the capillaries
Diffusion - through fenestrations eg O2, CO2, glucose, amino acids Bulk Bulk flow - driven by a pressure gradient eg Large ions Transcytosis - transported by pinocytic vesicles happens in blood eg. lipid molecules
75
in what order are vessels connected
arteries - arterioles - capillaries - venule - veins
76
What are the numbers meaning for blood pressure
Top number - the highest pressure in the arteries which occurs when the ventricles contract Bottom number - lowest pressure in the arteries which occurs when the ventricles relax
77
How does pulse work
Expansion and recoil of elastic arteries like the aorta which occur after each systole ( heart contraction)
78
Factors that affect blood pressure
Blood volume Vascular resistance - size of lumen blood viscosity vessel length Cardiac output - heart rate
79
Factors that causes changes in blood pressure
Behaviour eg diet and exercise Environment (thermoregulation) Emotions (fright) Lesions in brain
80
what systems control blood pressure
Cardiovascular centre in medulla oblongata: heart rate and stroke volume Neural regulaiton Hormone regulation Autoregulation
81
Receptors of the Cardiovascular centre
Proprioceptors: joint movement Baroreceptors: Pressure and stretch in vessel walls Chemoreceptors: concentration of chemical in blood
82

Cell biology and physiology (3 decks)

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