CSET I Flashcards
(157 cards)
1
Q
Phonetics
A
sounds out of mouth (articulatory versus produced)
Actual sounds are different from what we hear in our heads. Aspiration is the puff of air after T, P, or K when they begin a syllable with a vowel right after. In other languages, the aspiration or not has a difference in meaning. But with phonetics, meaning doesn’t matter. It only matters how sounds are produced. “STOP” only has one aspiration after P whereas “TOPS” has an aspiration after both T and P.
2
Q
Phonology
A
Phonology- Systems of sound. How the production of sounds make a difference in the language. English has 6 different ways of pronouncing T, aspirated unaspirated. Pot doesn’t have a real T sound, just a cut off. A flap is like in little, we hear it as a t but more like d. Glottal stop like kitten. Hunter has no t at all, just in our brains. All of the above are allophones of the sound t because none of them change meaning.
Phonology is the study of phonemes, which are found by minimal pairs such as pat and bat, since they don’t mean the same thing, the difference is a phoneme in English, meaning p and b are phonemes.The sound in
Thrill and Bill is not a minimal pair because they differ in more than one phone.
3
Q
Allophones
A
Aspirated and unaspirated P are not separate phonemes because they don’t make a difference in meaning in English, so they are allophones of the same phoneme, like two ways of “sounding” the same meaning. Like r and l in Japanese. B and v in Spanish?
4
Q
Spanish Allophones: [d] and [ð]
A
For example, the Spanish phoneme /d/ is pronounced as a stop [d] at the beginning of the word or after n or l, as in doña (ˈdo.ɲa) or andar (ãn̪.ˈdaɾ).
However, when it appears in other places, like in the word hada (ˈa.ða) where the /d/ is in between vowels, it’s pronounced [ð]—similar to the voiced “th” sound in English words “they” and “gather.”
Many native Spanish speakers are not aware that they pronounce the /d/ phoneme in distinct ways. As a non-native speaker, if you were to pronounce the word candado (kan.dá.ðo) as (kan.dá.do), you would be understood but native listeners would detect a faint accent.
5
Q
Spanish Allophones: [b] and [β]
A
The Spanish phoneme /b/ can be pronounced as [b] or [β], depending on its position in the word. Similarly as in the [d] and [ð] case, you pronounce /b/ as [b] if the word that starts with the letter b is spoken in isolation or it is in a group of words but pronounced after a pause, or after a nasal consonant /m, n). However, between two vowels /b/ is always a [β].
bandera [‘ban.de.ra]
ambos [‘am.bos]
envía [‘em.bía]
sabe [‘sa.βe]
lava
6
Q
Spanish phonemic orthography
A
In an ideal world, one specific letter would correspond with one specific phoneme, to make language learning more efficient. Luckily, Spanish is quite close to this linguistic utopia, leading scholars to boast about “Spanish phonemic orthography,” which is a fancy way of saying that words are pronounced almost exactly as they’re written. In fact, you rarely need to use a dictionary to check the pronunciation of a written Spanish word after you’ve learned the phonetics.
Spanish has 24 phonemes and US English has 32.
7
Q
Phonetics and Phonology difference
A
So phonetics is about the sounds and phonology is which sounds matter for meaning.
Phonetics is across all languages.
Phonology depends on a particular language.
8
Q
Two TH sounds in English
A
Thy and thigh have different th sounds “theta” symbol versus “thorn”
9
Q
sound for measure and rouge
A
that sound
10
Q
Velar nasal
A
sing and think, the ng with no g.
11
Q
Place of articulation labials
A
m, p, b
12
Q
Place of articulation: Labio dentals
A
f and v
13
Q
place of articulation interdentals with tongue
A
th
14
Q
Place of articulation: Aveolars
A
Aveolar ridge: t, d, s, z, n, l, r
15
Q
Place of articulation: post aveolars
A
further back in mouth: sh, ch, rouge
16
Q
place of articulation: palatal glide
A
y in love ya, starts in front and glides back on palate
17
Q
place of articulation: velar
A
near velum (back of mouth): k, g, w, sing,
18
Q
Place of articulation: glottals
A
made with glottus: h
19
Q
Manner of articulation: stops
A
complete obstruction (can’t be elongated): p, b, t, d, k, g
20
Q
Manner of articulation: Fricatives
A
(can elongate): f, v, s, g, h
21
Q
Manner of articulation: Affricates
A
Combination of stop and fricatives like ch.
22
Q
Manner of articulation: Nasals
A
with nose: m, n, ng
23
Q
Voiced or voiceless
A
Like z and s, vocal folds are vibrating or not
24
Q
Number English vowels
A
19.English has a lot more (19) vowels in phonology (sounds with meaning) than Spanish (only 5, all long or tense)
25
Monothongs
E sound as in seat
I as in sit
A as in sate
E as in set
A as in sat
U as in suit
OO as in soot
O as in soat (not a word, boat)
A as in sought
A as in sot (Utahans don’t differentiate between caught and cot)
U as in sudden or hut
Schwa sound which is unstressed a like first syllable of about and last of sofa
26
Diphthongs
(combination of monothongs) We hear these as vowels because we treat them as phonemes but phonetically they are two distinct sounds
Long eye sound like mice (ai)
Vowel o plus glide like moist (oi)
Au like in mouse
Ai like in tail
27
R-Controlled vowels
English has r-controlled vowels like Burt bird, burn, car horn that is almost like the elimination of the grapheme (vowel letter)
28
English vowels
Basically English vowels have 5 long, 5 short, 3 “special” (saw, school, took), 3 R controlled (er, ar, or), 2 Dipthongs oi ou (but what about mice and tail?), and one Schwa (banana).
29
Spanish vowels
Also many Spanish vowels can be combined into diphthongs that end up sounding much like English vowels
Like cohete can be similar to the short e in went. Short a in yam is like final vowel of media.
30
Watch out vowels in English
E, I, Y change vowels K takes I and E, C takes the other three. Ken Kill Kim, cat, coy, cut (because if it were c, it would sound like sen, sill, sim, like cellular, circle, and cycle) Also G is affected by E, I, Y, gem, ginger, gymnastics. Otherwise it is other sound like Gault, gas, God, gopher
31
E and I effect on Spanish
Spanish c is similarly affected by E and I, like cebra, ciervo, versus camara, conejo, culo. Also G, gato, goma, gusano versus general, gigante.
This explains why U must be added to words to preserve the G sound rather than the spanish J sound. So guerra would be jerra if it were gerra. If you want to preserve the U sound after the g you have to put two dots like verguenza,
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Grapheme
In the word little, the phoneme /t/ is represented by the grapheme tt.
Phoneme= Smallest unit of sound in a language
Grapheme= Smallest units of print to represent a single phoneme
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Morphology
Morphology is changing words by adding morphemes (ex. Farm morphs into farmer by adding -er to suffix. Deporte se puede cambiar a deportista por añadir el sufí-ista.). Types of Morphemes: Free can function on their own (book and read) Bound are added to free morphemes to create new words (books and reading) Lexical are free that do real work (verb, nouns, adjectives) while functional does easier stuff like pronouns, articles (he, but, to)
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Morpheme
Smallest meaningful linguistic unit. Cherrytrees. The s has meaning because it makes it plural therefore it is the smallest meaningful unit and is a morpheme. Cherry is a morpheme because it is the smallest meaningful unit, can’t be broken down further because the y doesn’t add meaning to it. Tr doesn’t add meaning to tree, so tree is a morpheme.
Cherry and tree are FREE MORPHEMES
S doesn’t have meaning on its own is BOUND MORPHEME because it needs to be attached to something else.
-s un- the hyphen goes where the word needs to attach.
35
Infix
When a morpheme appears in the middle of the root it is called an infix.
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Inflection
Morphemes have functions like meaning or grammar.
Inflection is when grammatical morphemes don’t change the meaning, they just add grammatical info about how much or when something happened, like walk-ed tree-s
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Derivation
Derivation is when the morpheme changes the meaning of the word it attaches to. Example: write versus writer. One is a command, the other is a person. Also: likely versus unlikely, they are antonyms with opposite meanings.
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Lexeme
Everything that we cannot derive from something else is stored in the mental lexicon and is a lexeme. “Talk” is a lexeme. Talking, talker, talks, are all word forms that are part of it.
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Open-class words
Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs: adding new such words to the language is possible.
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Close-class words
Prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, etc. No new such words can be added to the language
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Bound morpheme example
un-trust-worth-y. Un- and -y are bound. Trust and worth are free.
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imperfect
yo comia
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preterite
yo comi
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present
yo como
45
future
yo comere
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imperfect subjunctive
yo comiera
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imperative
coma
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present subjunctive
yo coma
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conditional
yo comeria
50
pluperfect
yo habia comido
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conditional preterite
yo habria comido
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present perfect
yo he comido
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future perfect
yo habre comido
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past perfect subjunctive
yo hubiera comido
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present perfect subjunctive
yo haya comido
56
Allomorphs
variants of a morpheme that differ in pronunciation but are semantically (meaning) identical such as the English past tense morpheme "ed": 4 different ways: hunted (id) banded (ed) fished /t/. and buzzed /d/
57
Regular suppletion
When adding an inflectional morpheme to a stem to express a specific grammatical category creating a new word form from the same lexeme (like plural or past) and the result follows the regular rule: cat: cats. Number: numbers. Wait: Waited.
58
Partial Suppletion
When adding an inflectional morpheme to a stem to express a specific grammatical category creating a new word form from the same lexeme (like plural or past) and the result PARTIALLY follows the regular rule: Man: men. Take: took. Drive: drove.
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Full suppletion
When adding an inflectional morpheme to a stem to express a specific grammatical category creating a new word form from the same lexeme (like plural or past) and the result completely changes the graphemes: go: went.
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Syntax
the grammatical constraints on language that let us know we can’t say reslept but we can say recarpeted.
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Semantics
the meaning of sentences. Lexical semantics is the study of word meanings and relations. semantics is how one’s lexicon, grammatical structure, tone, and other elements of a sentence coalesce to communicate its meaning
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From smallest to largest units of linguistic study
Phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.First sound, then systems of sound to create meaning, then, units of meaning, then underlying constraints about combining words in ways that seem correct for all sharers of the language, then the meaning of those ways Chompsy’s famous: Colorless green ideas sleep furiously., then outside the language but affecting it such as intent of speaker and opinion of listener.
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Past Present Future Simple English
danced, dance, will dance
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Past, Present, Future Continuous English
was dancing, am dancing, will be dancing
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Past, Present, Future Perfect English
had danced, have danced, will have danced
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Past, Present, Future, Perfect Continuous English
had been dancing, have been dancing, will have been dancing
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Direct Object Pronoun Spanish
me, te, lo/la, nos, los/las (cares about gender). La empuje. Empuje a Maria.
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Indirect Object Pronoun Spanish
me, te, le, nos les. Le mande la carta a ella. Le mande la carta. Se la mande.
69
Language is acquired.
The rules you make up for language do not resemble the rules in your head. You are not learning rules because there are no rules to be learned with language. Why? Because language is acquired.
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Underlying linguistic features
Underlying linguistic features are the same across most human languages but they are just satisfied in different ways. For example, you have to add a tense to a question verb. In English, verbs don’t carry tense with them so you have to conjugate the To Do. IN spanish, no “Do” is necessary because the verb carries tense with it.
71
Rules
What people have in their heads are not rules per se, but an abstract system consisting of features and operations that are used to satisfy features, plus constraints on how those operations can happen. Much of grammatical information is stored in lexical entries. This means that words have lexical information stored in them, not just their direct meaning.
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Pragmatics
Pragmatics considers the semantics of a sentence but in a given context.
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Linguistics tries to analyse 8 things:
What language is. What languages have in common. Social differences in language usage. How languages change over time. How languages work. How languages vary. How children acquire language. How language reflects the mind.
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Dyachronic
Study of how languages change over time.
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Synchronic
Study of language at a specific time.
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Prescriptive linguistics
idea that there are rules in language that are discoverable and correct based on written language. There is a “correct” English and “vernacular.” THey want to prescribe the rules and dictate this is how you should speak.
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Descriptive linguistics
how do people actually speak. What sounds actually come out of their mouths. I ain’t got no money is used by native speakers and it is rule-based because you can’t say, I ain’t got any money, so it has underlying constraints in the minds of users. Focus is on spoken English. All variants of language be they standard or vernacular are of equal interest.
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6 Characteristics of human language
System of sound signals: Signals come from my mouth and go into your ear.
Arbitrary: The sound has no logical relationship to the meaning (except onomatopoeia)
Duality: langue the social and parole what stays in my mind
Structure dependent
Creative: Finite number of sounds, infinite number of words
Displacement: can talk about something that does not exist here and now.
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Ferdinand de Saussere
Sign is made of signifier and signified
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Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
Language determines the way we think. The distinctions encoded in one language are not found in any other language. The conceptual organization of our language forces us to perceive and interpret the world in a certain way.
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Chomsky
Universal grammar. Language acquisition device.
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Linguistic repertoire
the tools you have in your mind that allow you to communicate with others. Teach students to be metacognitive about their linguistic repertoire. Teach them skills such as circumlocution.
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Idialect
your own way of speaking
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Diglossia
Like bilingualism but with dialects instead of languages. Triglossia.
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Pidgin
using some words from two languages for the purpose of trade. It is not useful for love, football, or other things. Merely for the purpose of having to buy and sell among each other.
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Creole
a developed variety of pidgin that happens when children are born into a pidgin environment. The pidgin of their parents is put through children’s language acquisition device and it becomes a fully fledged language with its own syntax, lexicon, and everything else.
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Deep and Surface Structure
Noam Chompsky: The same deep structure can be expressed by many different surface structures. John hit Fred, John was hitting Fred, Fred was hit by John: all express different surface structures of the same deep structure which is: John hits Fred.
The opposite can be true: Annie hit a man with an umbrella. That is one surface structure, but it can have two deep structure meanings: either Annie used an umbrella to hit a man, or Annie hit a man who happened to have an umbrella. This means there is structural ambiguity.
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Duality of Patterning
Language exists at two levels: The level of the form like sounds or hand shapes and the level of the combination of forms that create meaning. It's the combination that makes the meaning, not the individual sounds
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Arbitrary signs
Dog wagging tail is a sign that it is happy, but that happens regardless of what group the dog comes from, so it isn’t arbitrary. Even onomatopoeia words are arbitrary because other societies have different ways of saying them, like rooster crow sounds.
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Reflexivity
Reflexivity is a feature of human language that allows us to use language to talk about language.
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Own lexeme
Deep and hole are both lexemes but “deep hole” is not its own lexeme because it is predictable if we know what both deep and hole mean. On the other hand rabbit and hole are both lexemes and rabbit hole is a different lexeme because you’d never know from the definition of rabbit and hole that a rabbit hole is an addicting funnel of research.
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Two or more free morphemes together
Two or more free morphemes together is called a compound whether or not there is a space or hyphen between them.
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Fruit flies example of syntax
Time flies like an arrow.
Fruit flies like a banana.
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Bound roots
Not all roots are free morphemes, there are a handful of bound roots in English such as “cieve” as in receive, deceive, perceive, etc. Cieve is still a root, even though it can’t stand alone as a free morpheme.
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Ambiguous roots
Untwistable is ambiguous because twist is the root, but both untwist and twistable have meaning, so un-twistable might mean you can’t twist it, but it could also mean untwist-able meaning you are able to untwist it.
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Syntax: how languages express relationships between words
Grammaticality has nothing to do with whether or not the sentence makes sense. “Furiously sleep ideas green colorless,” and “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously,” both don’t make any sense semantically, but only the latter expresses proper syntax.
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Hyponym versus Hypernym
THe hyponym rabbit falls under the hypernym animal, this is a semantic relationship between rabbit and animal. Not all languages draw semantic lines in the same place. Like Spanish has ser and estar, both have the dictionary meaning of to be, so you need to know how the language carves up the semantic space to know which one to use.
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Word definitions
It is impossible to pin down the true meaning of a word with a definition (bird: a winged animal that flies), so we just have prototypes in our head for things like “bird” that fit the creatures around us to greater or lesser extents: Sparrow fits the archetype almost exactly, but emu, though it doesn’t fit the definition, fits the archetype though is further away from it than sparrow.
Some words don’t have archetypes at all, like function words “of, the” which only have meanings that can be understood in their connection to other words.
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4 Assumptions about Language
Pragmatics: We have 4 assumptions about language: the cooperative principle (Paul Grice): if things go against those assumptions, we know something beyond the syntax is going on, like sarcasm, humor, lying;
Quality: people tell the truth
Quantity: people give us enough information, but not too much.
Relevance: people will say what we need to know.
Manner: people will be straightforward.
If it doesn’t make sense at a literal level, we can assume what they mean based on the cooperative principle. “Can I have a cookie,” if it is answered by “I don’t know, can you?” the person will be annoyed because the interlocutor is going against the cooperative principle and ignoring the obvious “implicature” that “Can I have a cookie?” is not saying, “is my esophagus physically recovered enough to handle a cookie at this point?” given the context (which was not a doctor’s office).
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Politeness
Ways of making demands more polite are cultural. Politeness is part of pragmatics. How much overlap and time between turn taking in conversation is cultural. High involvement interactional style. High considerateness interactional style. Humans are acutely aware of turn taking differences
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Broadening change
Words can broaden their meaning over time. “Thing” used to mean council or assembly in English, now it refers to anything.
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Change through euphemism
The euphemism cycle can cause language change, like with the word toilet which used to mean cloth, then the beauty items on the cloth, then the whole room with those items which included a crapper, then it became too directly associated with shit to even say toilet, so now some say bathroom as a euphemism and keep “tiolet” for the crapper itself.
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Apron
Apron used to be Napron but dropped the N because people thought "a napron" was "an apron." Old English in 1100 dropped a lot of suffixes. Then the Great Vowel Shift.
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Homesign
In Nigaragua in 1977 first deaf school brought kids together, didn’t teach them sign, but the kids blended together their own homesign and it became a language after the next generation of students got a hold of it.
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Contact and isolation
Languages in extended contact can become more similar to each other.
Or, a group that speaks a language can diverge and have a language that is less and less similar
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Comparative reconstruction
Comparative reconstruction uses cognates to show common ancestry.
The proto-Indo-European language was probably spoken 6000 years ago by a group of nomadic pastoralists. This evolved into European and Indian languages.
Other proto languages that have been constructed through cognate, DNA, and archaeological analysis include
proto-Semitic: ancestor of Arabic, Amharic, and Hebrew
Proto-Algonquian: ancestor to Cree, Ojibwe and Massachussett
Proto-Austronesian: Javanese, Tagalog, and Malagasy
After years of study, some languages aren’t known to come from a common ancestor with any other language near or far, such as Basque, Ainu, and Korean.
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Dialectic continuum
Spanish went from a dialect of Latin into its own language that was mutually unintelligible from Latin. Pinpointing that exact moment is difficult because of the dialectic continuum.
Geography can block dialectic continuums of mutual intelligibility, like in Tibet, so dialects become so different that mountain people can no longer understand valley people.
Diaspora communities through migration will eventually become mutually unintelligible from their mother country which will have changed much faster. Larger groups tend to change language much faster than smaller groups.
Hindi and Urdu use different writing systems, but verbally are about as mutually intelligible as British and US English, so the division into separate languages is purely political (and religious). Then, the differences keep getting deliberately stronger because Hindi borrows new words from Sansrit while Urdu borrows from Arabic. Latin Spanish and Castilian Spanish in movie subtitles appear to be doing the same thing. Latin American Spanish loves to borrow words from English, but Spain Spanish makes up their own words for new things (bitacora for blog, ordenador for computer)
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Writing
Writing was only invented independently 3 times in history:
4500 years ago around Sumer, cuneiform. This inspired Egyptians, which inspired Phoenicians, which inspired Greeks, and then Latin.
3500 years ago in China, earliest on oracle bones.
3000 years ago Olmec, logographic, inspired Zapotec, Aztec, and Maya
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How does L1 impact second language acquisition?
It depends on how similar or different the languages are from each other. Spanish and English are similar from same Indo-Euro language family, but different branches (Romantic and Germanic) but English to Russian is hard because totally different families.
110
Synchronic versus Diachronic
Diachronic: language evolution
Synchronic: different languages right now.
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Phonetic and phonological change
Current allophones may have once been different phonemes, such as b and v were different in Old Spanish, (which we know because v and b words were spelled consistently in Old Spanish even though there was no standardized spelling). For example, in Mio Cid, estaba is spelled like it is currently pronounced, estava.
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Sound assimilation
when sounds become more like the ones around them in the word such as when hand was merged with bag, the n is changing (though still not changed in the grapheme) to m and the d is dropped, to become handbag because m is closer to b than n since b and m are both bilabial consonants. Also cup and board, the vowel sound o like in board is changed to the r controlled er like letter because it is closer to the u of cup and not rounded like o.
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Umlaut (not diacritical)
Umlaut (not the diacritical mark) is a form of assimilation, the process of one speech sound becoming more similar to a nearby sound. Umlaut occurred in order to make words easier to pronounce. If a word has two vowels, one back in the mouth and the other forward, it takes more effort to pronounce than if those vowels were closer together. Thus, one way languages may change is that these two vowels get drawn closer together. The phenomenon is also known as vowel harmony, the complete or partial identity of vowels within a domain, typically a word.
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Dissimilation
One sound becomes less like another such as Old Spanish omne becomes hombre.
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Metathesis
Two sounds switch places like old English thridda becoming new English third (but still keeping the same order in three)
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Haplology
Loss of a syllable, like probably is becoming probly in English. Englaland in Old English has become England
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Prothesis
Addition of a sound at the beginning of a word like how Old Spanish added an e to the Latin ‘status’ becomes estado (state).
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Morphological and syntactic changes
In Old Spanish, perfect constructions of movement verbs, such as ir ('(to) go') and venir ('(to) come'), were formed using the auxiliary verb ser ('(to) be'), as in Italian and French: Las mugieres son llegadas a Castiella was used instead of Las mujeres han llegado a Castilla ('The women have arrived in Castilla').
Possession was expressed with the verb aver (Modern Spanish haber, '(to) have'), rather than tener: Pedro ha dos fijas was used instead of Pedro tiene dos hijas ('Pedro has two daughters').
The morphological idiosyncrasies of today are seen as the outcome of yesterday's regular syntax.[2] For instance, in English, the past tense of the verb to go is not goed or any other form based on the base go but went, a borrowing from the past tense of the verb to wend.
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Lexical change
Lexical: Romans were like Spanish in that they resisted foreign words, especially Greek for lacuna in their language. Even so they borrowed pholosophia from the Greeks. This is still lexical change, just resisting loans from other languages, so the Chinese still have a word for computer, they just developed it from existing words in their language: electric brain.
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Semantic changes
Semantic changes are shifts in the meanings of existing words. Basic types of semantic change include:
pejoration, in which a term's connotations become more negative
amelioration, in which a term's connotations become more positive
broadening, in which a term acquires additional potential uses
narrowing, in which a term's potential uses are restricted
After a word enters a language, its meaning can change as through a shift in the valence of its connotations. As an example, when "villain" entered English it meant 'peasant' or 'farmhand', but acquired the connotation 'low-born' or 'scoundrel', and today only the negative use survives. Thus 'villain' has undergone pejoration. Conversely, the word "wicked" is undergoing amelioration in colloquial contexts, shifting from its original sense of 'evil', to the much more positive one as of 2009 of 'brilliant'.
Words' meanings may also change in terms of the breadth of their semantic domain. Narrowing a word limits its alternative meanings, whereas broadening associates new meanings with it. For example, "hound" (Old English hund) once referred to any dog, whereas in modern English it denotes only a particular type of dog. On the other hand, the word "dog" itself has been broadened from its Old English root 'dogge', the name of a particular breed, to become the general term for all domestic canines.[10]
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Folk etymology changes
the form of a word changes so that it better matches its popular rationalization. The variant spelling of licorice as liquorice comes from the supposition that it has something to do with liquid. Anglo-Norman licoris (influenced by licor "liquor") and Late Latin liquirītia were respelled for similar reasons, though the ultimate origin of all three is Ancient Greek γλυκύρριζα (glucúrrhiza) "sweet root."
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Phonemic splits
Phonemic Splits: In Old English, Z and S were allophones of the same phoneme and they have since split to change meaning as in zit versus sit, however vestiges of the fact that they were allophones exist in house versus housing.
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creative metaphorical meaning extension
the word focus. While now this word can mean ‘center of activity or interest’ (this sense is first recorded in 1796), it goes back to the Latin word focum meaning ‘hearth’ (Modern Romance languages derive their words for ‘fire’ from this Latin source: e.g. Italian fuoco, Spanish fuego, French feu). It was the German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler who in 1604 came up with a new, metaphorical meaning for this word, now recruited to refer to ‘a burning point, at which the rays of a lens or mirror converge’. The word was introduced into English by Thomas Hobbes in 1650s. (Note that the modern meaning derives by a further concrete-to-abstract meaning extention.)
Or consider the English word fool (and the French fou/folle ‘masculine/feminine fool’). It too derives from a Latin source, specifically from the word follem meaning ‘a leather sack filled with air; bellows’ (it could also refer to a balloon; the English ball as well as follicle are related). The modern meaning of ‘a person with little or no judgment, common sense, wisdom, etc.; a simpleton’ comes from a metaphorical meaning extention from ‘a sack filled with air’ to ‘a person full of air, an air-head’.
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Accents in English
Spanish accent rules if applied to English would make English easier to differentiate minute (time) from minute (small), offense (swear) from offense (sports) and record (tape) from record (vinyl).
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Grave
If a palabra grave ends with anything other than a vowel, s or n, you have to put an accent
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Aguda
If a palabra aguda ends with anything other than a non-s or n consonant you have to put an accent.
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Commonality of grave no accent mark
Most words are grave ending with a vowel, like family words, animals, numbers.
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Esdrújula
la silaba antepenúltima es la tonica: Sílaba, tónica, música, hipopótamo
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Sobresdrújula
explicamelo, cortaselas,
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Paciencia
pa-cien-cia no accent because it is grave and it ends with a vowel n or s.
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Veloz
no accent because it is aguda and doesn’t end with vowel n or s.
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Hiatus or hiato
is opposite of dipthong in that it is two vowels together that aren’t pronounced together like reenter, which is not pronounced like green. Spanish has weak and strong vowels or abiertos y cerrados. English is hard to tell if it is a hiatus or dipthong, like co’op or coop. But in Spanish there are rules. i and u are weak. A dipthong is any combination of vowels that includes weak vowels. HIato only includes strong vowels. So, if you want to make a dipthong into a hiato you have to mark the weak vowel with an accent. Example is baile and caida. Bai-le is two syllables. Ca-i-da is three, so since we want to break the dipthong in the ai of caida, we use an accent on the i. So, Paisaje doesn’t need accent, but Taino does. The name Maria needs accents on the weak vowel so that they are hiatos and not diptongos. Aereo needs an accent on the first e because it is esdrujula since two strong vowels eo are never a dipthong, always an hiato, so it is esdrujula a-e-re-o, not grave: a-e-reo. More examples of making hiatos from diptongos:
Baúl, Raúl, búho, transeúnte, ganzúa, país, cacatúa, vehículo, sandía, rubíes, poseído, increíble, retraído, extraído, María, reír, sonreír, oír, freír, sofreír, desleír, maúllan, aúlla, rehúyen, travesía, flúor, tosían, caída, cafeína, ataúd, días, tío, dúo, aíslen, maíz, avalúo
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Tilde diacritica
distinguishes between two meanings. Homographs written the same but different meanings in English don’t have distinguishing marks like can and can, have and have (the auxiliary). Basically tinder diacriticas distinguish between homographs. Following have no accent marks: de (of), el (the), mas (but), mi (my), se (reflexive), si (if), te (to you), tu (your), aun (even), solo (alone). Following do: de (give), el (he), mas (more), and mi (to me), se (I know), si (yes), te (tea), tu (you), aun (still, todavia), solo (only, solamente).
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When and When accents
Good example of the different question words “when” as a question and “when” as an adverb is: “Me gustaria saber cuando sirven la comida.” (I would like to know about that thing once they serve the food.) Versus: “Me gustaría saber cuándo sirven la comida.” (I would like to know when they are going to serve the food.)
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Demonstrative pronouns accents
Demonstrative pronouns like this or that: I don’t like this one (needs accent) No me gusta ese. Whereas no me gusta ese traje doesn’t because it is an adjective for the suit.
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Pragmatics in divorce
Pragmatics is the difference between meaning and use.
Pragmatics is when we bring to bear our vast knowledge just to understand who the “he” is in the conversation between a romantic couple and the female says: “I’m leaving you.” the male says: “Who is he?”
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Krashen's only way to learn
Stephen Krashen: we acquire language in only one way: when we get comprehensible input in a low anxiety environment.
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Speech acts theory
the theory of speech acts: not the sounds, not the meaning, but the effects that you can achieve with language utterances and conversations.
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Locution, Illocution, and Perlocution
Speech acts communicate more than just information. “I now pronounce you husband and wife,” doesn’t tell the couple information, it changes their situation.
Searl’s theory: when somebody says something, they are involved simultaneously in:
Locution: What is actually said
Illocution: What is actually accomplished by what is said. Types of illocutions: 1. Assertive or Constative: statement about how things are, can be proven true or false. 2. Directive: command, cannot be deemed true or false, but only appropriate or inappropriate (same with 3 and 4 all of which Austin called Performatives) 3. Commissive. Promise to do something. 4. Expressives: shares feelings. 5. Declarations: like I pronounce you man and wife, change reality through words.
Perlocution: What the other person does with the speech act and how that varies from what the speaker wanted them to do.
Difference between Stearle and Austin: Austin says that a speech act is “I promise to wash the dishes.” Stearle says that only becomes a speech act once the dishes are actually clean.
Indirect speech acts:
Locution: I have class (to the request from a boy “will you hang out with me this weekend?”
Illocution: I won’t hang out with you (even though all you said was I have class)
Perlocution: You get to do something else other than both hang out with the person and go to class (presumably you don’t actually have class on a weekend, it was a just a lie to reject)
Locution: Will you please come to my stateroom? (from captain to peon)
Illocution: appears to be a question, but actually a command or directive (because of the context. A request in the form of a question coming from a commanding officer is tantamount to an order)
Perlocution: You must say ay ay captain and then go to the stateroom, which matches what the captain wants you to do.
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Cohesion without coherence
“I bought some hummus to eat with celery. Green vegetables can boost your metabolism. The Australian Greens is a political party. I couldn’t decide what to wear to the new year’s party.”
In the example above, there are lexical links from one sentence to the next; cohesive ties are used to join the sentences. There is evidence of lexical repetition, ‘green’ ‘party’ and collocations, ‘new years’.
However, this string of sentences do not make any sense; there is no binding semantic link. This is an example of cohesion without coherence.
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Cohesive devices
Cohesive devices effectively help the discourse flow. They include collocations, lexical repetition, linking adverbials, substitution, ellipsis, conjunctions, synonymy/antonymy, hypernyms (color)/hyponyms(red) and referencing (anaphoric [aforementioned], cataphoric [following], deictic [all related words]). These devices create physical links between the words in a discourse.
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Behaviorism
make them repeat when they make a mistake. Reward good sentences, correct bad ones, but don’t explain. Just reward when they happen to say it right (with praise). We look for and focus on behavior, everything in the environment is to shape behavior.
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Universal grammar
Noam Chompsky. Innate universal grammar theory.
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Krashen's monitor
Distinguish acquisition from learning.
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Cognitive
Measure knowledge, not behavior. You have to know the underlying grammar.
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Conversation theory
interacting with students and teacher. Base everything on meaning both spoken and gestures. Focus is on getting your point across and understanding, not necessarily being aware of the grammatical forms.
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Schumann's acculturation theory
Immigrants have no choice, learn language in order to be part of the culture. You orient yourself to the culture and that’s how you learn the language, through social interactions.
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Second language acquisition theories
Audio-Lingual Approach: Focuses more on listening to the teacher and practicing speaking language over more grammar-based
Direct-Method: Students are constantly surrounded with L2, all instruction is given in L2
Grammar-Translation: The idea that students learn through constant writing and memorizing vocabulary. Use of L1 and L2.
Total Physical Response (TPR) is a method of teaching language or vocabulary concepts by using physical movement to react to verbal input.
The Natural Approach is a method of second language learning that focuses on communication skills and language exposure before rules and grammar, similar to how you learn your first language
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Analyze potential differences between learning first and second languages.
Age of acquisition. The older you are when start learning a language, the less proficient you’ll be.
Variability in learning context: only one way to learn L1, but so many different learning contexts for L2: movies, study abroad, immersion in another country,
Amount of Input: L1 will have same amount of input unless extremely deprived, L2 is totally variable: people learning through Duolingo versus learning in a country where the language is spoken.
Affective factors: L1 young children are less inhibited, no anxiety. L2 anxiety of making mistakes. L2 have variable amounts of motivation for learning the language, for work, for pleasure, for survival. Whereas L1 the motivation is the same for all babies: becoming part of the family, becoming human.
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False cognates
colegio, introducir, carpeta, largo, cuestion, asistir, tuna, recordar, exito, embarazada, atender, vaso, parientes, realizar, sopa, soportar,
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5 Stages of SLA
Preproduction: little verbal output, but soaking in the structure and context: need tons of comprehensible input. Silent period. Need 500 words in vocab to emerge from silent period. In full immersion setting, lasts one day to 6 months.
Early production: single word output, experimenting with the patterns. 1000 words in their vocab, lasts up to 6 months (more?)
Speech emergence: words into grammatically incorrect sentences, which is fine, misunderstands jokes. Lots of experimentation. 3000 word vocab. Lasts a year from starting point.
Intermediate fluency. Engage in conversation with grammar errors. 6000 words and 2 years from starting point.
Advanced fluency. Feel as comfortable as in their native language (I doubt it, especially if their native language is keeping par) 5 to 8 years from start.
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Applied linguistics
how the things we learn about language can be put to use to solve problems in the world. Rhetoric is the study of how language can best be put to use to get the outcome you want.
Which technological devices actually increase language learning?
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Krashen's theory of SLA
Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: most fundamental/widely known one. The belief is that there are 2 independent systems of SLA (acquisition and learned). Acquisition is subconsciously acquired through meaningful interactions in the language, practicing communicating. Learning is the more formal one and not as important, this is the grammar rules.
Monitor Hypothesis: This explains the relationship between acquired and learning. This is a result of learned grammar. Acquisition is the initiator but learned will be the monitor, making sure the language is refined.
Natural Order Hypothesis: This suggests that the acquisition of language follows a natural order which is predictable. Some grammatical structures are just learned sooner before others.
Input Hypothesis: This is only concerned with the acquisition aspect, according to this idea: the learner improves and progresses along the natural order when they receive input that is one step beyond their linguistic competence. This shouldn’t be the same for every child since they will be at different levels.
Affective Filter Hypothesis: This hypothesis believes that important factors such as motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety play a role in SLA. People who struggle with these qualities will have a harder time learning the language.
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Old Spanish
Old Spanish was an Iberian dialect of Vulgar Latin. Originally, it distinguished between v and b, but then merged them and for spelling, just matched them to Latin. Cantar del Mio Cid is best example of Old Spanish. In 1815, spelling deliberately changed so as to be different from portuguese. Changed things like facer to hacer, muito to mucho, dexar to dejar.
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Spanish English idiomatic differences
Estoy hasta las narices; Up to my ears
Cuesta un ojo; costs and arm and a leg
Me estas tomando el pelo, you’re pulling my leg
La gota que colmo el vaso, the straw that broke the camel’s back
Dos pajaros con un solo tiro, two birds with one stone
De tal palo, tal astilla, the apple doesn’t fall far from the tree
Traer pan a casa, bring home the bacon
Aprenderse de memoria, learn by heart
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10 Differences between English and Spanish
1. Nouns are masculine or feminine in Spanish
2. Nouns come before adjectives
3. Spanish negates words with “no”
4. Spanish uses de to make nouns possessive
5. Spanish sentences can omit the subject
6. Spanish uses tener (to have) to express feelings
7. Spanish has less prepositions than English
8. Spanish doesn’t use “it” very often
9. Spanish capitalization and punctuation follow different rules
10. Spanish spelling is more straightforward
