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Crowd behaviour II Flashcards

1
Q

Transformations NOT

A
  • Loss of self/ deindividuation
  • Loss of self-control
  • ‘Mob mentality’
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2
Q

Three transformations of crowd psychology

A
  • Cognitive
  • Relational
  • Affective
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3
Q

A. Cognitive transformation (or ‘self-stereotyping)

A

Shift from seeing myself in terms of my personal identity to seeing myself in terms of my social identity

  • I am a student
  • I am an Arsenal fan
  • I am a Catholic
  • I am a member of the St Pauls community
    (these are categories we can reflect upon, we do not forget we are a part of them)

For cognitive, this is really just a way of talking about the basic self-categorisation process

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4
Q

Explain cognitive transformation

A
  • Individuals no longer think and act on basis of personal (and idiosyncratic) beliefs and values
  • Instead, they think and act on their understandings of the category/ group’s norms, values, beliefs, and interests.
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5
Q

Cognitive transformation examples

A
  • Football match norms
  • Lecture theatre norms
  • Rules of the mosh pit
    (If they identify!)
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6
Q

What was collective behaviour in the St Pauls riot

A

Collective behaviour in the St Pauls riot was limited and patterned in line with the social identity (‘we as St Pauls residents’) shared by participants:
- Police were targets
- Banks, chain store; not local shops or houses
(Reicher, 1984)

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7
Q

B. Relational transformation

A

This is where…
- If you also have the same social identity as me…
- Instead of seeing you as ‘other’, I see you as part of ‘we’, ‘us’

i.e. We share social identity

IF you also have that social identity

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8
Q

Relational transformation
- what can shared identity result in?
- examples

A

Shared identity can result in a sense of connection and intimacy – even with strangers.

  • More acceptance/enjoyment of others’ close physical presence (Novelli et al., 2010) - when they thought the person was in the same category as them they were more likely to sit next to them
  • Reduced disgust at others’ bodily odours (Reicher et al., 2016) - when dirty t-shirt came from an in group member they were more happy to sniff it
  • Trust, feeling safe - they tend to give and expect support more from another person that is in the same group as them
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9
Q

C. Affective transformation

A

Social identity as the prism through which people appraise physical stimuli and experience relational intimacy

In addition:
- Being supported by others feels good
- Support from others for desired goals is empowering which also feels good
- Validation of emotions by others in the group – makes them more intense

(affect means emotion)

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10
Q

What are mass gatherings + example

A

an occasion, either organised or spontaneous where the “number of people attending is sufficient to strain the planning and response resources of the community, city, or nation hosting the event“ (World Health Organisation, 2008)
(categorised by size and international components- people coming from all around the world)

What are thought of as typical mass gatherings:
- Olympics
- World Cup
- Glastonbury
- Hajj

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11
Q

Hajj

A
  • One of the 5 pillars of Islam
  • 2-3 million people at a time
  • Global gathering- people go from all around the world
  • Six days of rituals in and around Mecca
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12
Q

What was a coming together of different disciplines to solve its problems

A

‘Mass gatherings medicine’

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13
Q

‘Mass gatherings medicine’
What were the main problems?

A
  • Infectious diseases
  • Crowd crushes
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14
Q

Mass gatherings: Crowd crushes

A

‘Stampedes’?
- Most things called ‘stampedes’ in the media do not involve running- Most of the facial crushes do not involve running
- Deaths often caused by crowd collapse in extreme density

‘Panic’?
- Fear is a consequence rather than a cause of crushes- (knowing you are about to be killed not the cause of the crushing)

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15
Q

Crushing accidents linked to the Hajj + Hajj dimensions

A

Despite extreme levels of density every year, crushing accidents are extremely rare at Hajj

Holy Mosque: 356,800m2 (88.2 acres)
Average crowd density level of at least four people per square metre (4ppm2). However, at certain locations, levels of density as people get closer to the Kaaba = 6-8ppm2

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16
Q

What do Mass gatherings medicine emphasise?

A

Emphasise on the negative

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17
Q

Wellbeing from attending a mass gathering: An example

A

Magh Mela: Hindu festival takes place in India for a month every year

An aversive crowd experience?

  • 20 million people in a ‘tent city’
  • Densely populated.
  • Sanitary conditions and facilities are extremely poor
  • Constant loud noise.

Researchers wondered whether people could go to this event and come back feeling healthier

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18
Q

Tewari et al. (2012)
Mela and well-being

A
  • Longitudinal survey
  • Compared people who attended before and after and people who didn’t attend
  • 416 pilgrims who attended for the whole month, and 127 controls who did not
  • Pilgrims reported a longitudinal increase in well-being relative to the matched sample who did not participate
  • Those who attended vs no attended reported much better health than those who didn’t attend
  • Therefore it can be seen that attending a mass gathering can be good for you

Sum- Mela is good for you

19
Q

Wellbeing associated with music (events)
Dingle et al. 2021

A
  • Scoping review of 63 studies examining psychosocial mechanisms.
  • Diverse music activities were considered: receptive and intentional music listening; sharing music; instrument playing; group singing; lyrics and rapping; movement and dance; and songwriting, composition, and improvisation.
  • Some mechanisms: memory and attention, mood and emotion regulation, social bonding and connection
  • Key point: effects of both music itself AND enjoying the music with others
20
Q

What are features of relational and affective transformation in mass gatherings that might contribute to health and wellbeing:

A
  • Expecting/ receiving support
  • Positive emotions
  • Validation
  • Sense of empowerment
21
Q

Relational transformation at the Mela
Hopkins et al. (2019)
Method

A
  • Semi-structured interviews at the 2010 Mela
  • 37 Kalpwasis (pilgrims): 24 men, 13 women, age range 40–83 years, M age = 63. (age tends to be skewed towards older group as representative of people who go on the pilgrimage)
  • 29 were high caste and 8 low caste - correspond to the caste distribution at the event
  • In Hindi or local dialects
  • 30-80 minutes
  • Thematic analysis
22
Q

Relational transformation at the Mela effects

A
  • Shared social identity
  • Recognition
  • Validation
  • Solidarity - support
23
Q

Relational transformation at the Mela
Shared social identity

A

‘In the railway station every person has a different purpose, going to different places, going to another country, going to separate stations. But here there is only one purpose, onedharma[a religious way of life characterised by virtue and duty] is to be performed, that is why the crowd here and outside are different [···] There everyone has separate purposes but here the purpose becomes only one!’

Researchers asked how the Mela crowd compared to that experienced in India’s busy railway stations. Typically, a clear contrast was drawn.

24
Q

Relational transformation at the Mela
Recognition

A
  • P18F60: Here, this is not there like “no, this is mine, this is yours”. At home, even if there is a minor issue, clashes takes place don’t they? Now, here at the bank of [the] Ganga, you know how much of a crowd is there, but still nothing ever happens with anyone.
  • Interviewer: No clashes?
  • P18F60: Even if you get wet it feels that “that person is also here for bathing”. This love increases. By seeing everyone it feels that, like the reason we have [come], they have also come. (so this persuades me to try and be cooperative with them)

Others are recognised as fellow pilgrims and as holding the same identity-related beliefs and values as oneself. In turn, there is a sense that others’ behaviour is intelligible and the basis for social interaction: Rather than ignoring each other, people interact in meaningful ways (“everyone lives cooperatively, talks to each other”). Also repair.

Somebody does something which might upset/ annoy you, you’re more understanding and take care of it in a forgiving way and try to repair relations between you because you can see this person is there for the same purpose as you.

25
Q

Relational transformation at the Mela
Validation

A

(sense that you have a big crowd that by people being there for the same reason as you it confirms the value of this event and you being there)

  • P5M55: Where is the crowd a hurdle? The crowd is not a hurdle and more people are coming. It is a good thing. Like more and more people are joining in for something which I have come for. More and more numbers of people are coming in devotion. This is a good thing. Why would it be a hurdle?
  • Interviewer: Meaning if there is a bigger crowd, you would feel good?
  • P5M55: Yes, it will [unclear] the thing in which I have faith, here, if more and more people gather, it is a good thing.

Others’ participation confirms and validates “the thing in which I have faith”. In turn, this sense of validation mitigates any difficulties associated with a large crowd.

26
Q

Relational transformation at the Mela
Solidarity - support

A

‘At the railway station people are not helping each other, [they] fulfil their own aim. When the train arrives, immediately, if they have a reservation, people will board. Suppose it is the General class [a basic level of rail travel], someone is taking their own luggage and facing problems, they [other passengers] will not care. And here [in the Mela], people take much care of this thing!’

Support is given and expected – and when it doesn’t occur people feel disappointed

Importance of looking at boundaries- the fact that the person felt disappointed when support was not give shows you that its an expectation

27
Q

Solidarity at the 7th July 2005 London bombings

A
  • 4 bombs
    (three trains, one bus)
  • Rush hour
  • 56 people died
  • 700+ injuries

Emergency services didn’t reach all the survivors immediately – the crowd was left in the dark for up to 20 minutes or more

Drury et al., 2009

28
Q

After the bombing…

A

Interviewees’ references to ‘we-ness’:
‘unity’,
‘together’
‘similarity’
‘affinity’
‘part of a group’
‘everybody, didn’t matter what colour or nationality’
‘you thought these people knew each other’
‘teamness’[sic]
‘warmness’
‘vague solidity’
‘empathy’

‘Us’ in relation to the bomb blast

29
Q

Support (versus personal ‘selfishness’)

A

Support measured as giving reassurance, sharing water, pulling people from the wreckage, supporting people up as they evacuated, tying tourniquets

Reports of support associated with reports of shared social identity

There were numerous reports of seeing help, giving help shared with social identity

Highest category- ‘I saw help’
Second highest- ‘I helped’
Third highest ‘I was helped’
Lowest category- ‘selfish’ behaviours

30
Q

Helpful behaviour explained from the bombings

A

‘I remember walking towards the stairs and at the top of the stairs there was a guy coming from the other direction. I remember him kind of gesturing; kind of politely that I should go in front- ‘you first’ that. And I was struck I thought, God even in a situation like this someone has kind of got manners, really.’
(LB 11)

  • this positive regard/ helpfulness towards the other person is noted
  • emotional reaction to this- touched by this sign of care.
  • as well as a practical application, it can be interpreted as emotional support. ES is associated with recovery from trauma.
31
Q

Affective transformation
- what do crowd events seem to be?
- how is this interpreted?

A

Crowd events (often) seem to be very passionate – strong feelings, joy, anger, strong group loyalty . . .

Some commentators say this emotion is a form of madness or irrationality

32
Q

Affective transformation:
- What do both Durkheim and social identity researchers argue?
- Why does collective effervescence occur?

A

Both Durkheim and social identity researchers argue that strong positive emotions are linked to socially/ collectively meaningful activities.

Collective effervescence occurs because of:
- Validation and emotion
- Empowerment and emotion

33
Q

Validation and emotion
Neville & Reicher (2011) example

A
  • Interviews with 23 Dundee United supporters
  • When participants felt that co-present others shared their social identity, they:
    – Reported experiencing a validation of their and emotions, which augmented the strength of them

P13: I mean once you saw other people being enthusiastic it made me want to be more enthusiastic, and then I’m sure every other person then became more enthusiastic. It just increased it I felt like. [Extract 18]- This is saying that other people experiencing the emotion that you’re feeling validates this emotion and makes it stronger

34
Q

Empowerment and emotion

A

Identity-realisation at the Mela
- survey of pilgrams (N = 416) (Hopkins et al., 2015)
- Participants’ perceptions of a shared identity amongst crowd members increased participants’ sense that they were able to enact their collective identity
- the more pilgrims believed the other pilgrims around them and shared social identity with them (had the same beliefs/ values), the more these pilgrams felt able to carry out practices that they valued more than they could in everyday life, they were more able to realise their values
– eg. carry out rituals and spiritual acts that they can’t usually in everyday life
– associated with joy

At the pilgrimage everyone is there for the same reason so you feel stronger and good about being able to enact you’re values at the pilgrimage

35
Q

Long-term psychological changes and mass gatherings:
Malcolm quote

A

‘My pilgrimage broadened my scope. It blessed me with new insight. In two weeks in the Holy Land, I saw what I had never seen in thirty-nine years here in America. I saw allraces, allcolors,—blue-eyed blonds to black-skinned Africans—intruebrotherhood! In unity! … It was in the Holy World that my attitude was changed, by what I experienced there, and by what I witnessed there, in terms of brotherhood—not just brotherhood toward me, but brotherhood between all men, of all nationalities and complexions, who were there.’ (Malcolm X, 1965, pp 478–479)

36
Q

Long-term psychological changes:
What are the 3 studies related to this

A
  • Clingingsmith et al. (2009)
  • Khan et al.(2016) Mela
  • Alnabulsi et al. (2019)

(Khan looked at change in strength in the religious identity. Alnabulsi et al looked also at effects on relations with other groups.)

37
Q

Clingingsmith et al. (2009)
Procedure

A
  • Premise: Pakistan’s lottery for attending the Hajj
  • Survey ran 5-8 months after Hajj (survey based on people who enter the lottery)
  • Random selection of winners and losers
  • Broadly representative (though the better off slightly over-represented)
  • N = 1,605
38
Q

Clingingsmith et al. (2009)
Results

A

when they compared people who did vs didn’t go they found a series of behavioural and psychological beliefs

Those who attended Hajj:
- Greater commitment to their Muslim identity afterwards
- More positive towards other groups
- More favourable attitudes to women
- Greater belief in equality
Compared to matched sample

Plus increases observance of global Islamic practices, such as prayer and fasting, while decreasing participation in localised practices and beliefs, such as the use of amulets and dowry

39
Q

Clingingsmith et al. 2009
Limitations

A
  • But what was the process?- they didn’t have items in their survey on the process
  • No measures taken of mechanisms
  • Speculation that contact was responsible
40
Q

Khan et al.(2016) Mela
Study and results

A

Kalpwasis provided data at three time points (T1, T2, T3) and Controls at two (T1, T3).

Comparing attendees with matched sample afterwards:
- Heightened social identification as a Hindu
- Increased frequency of prayer rituals
- Mechanisms:

–Perceptions of sharing a common identity with other pilgrims
–Being able to enact one’s social identity

But this study didn’t look at changes in positive attitudes to other groups

People who attended were more committed to their religious identity and observant of religious rituals (so same findings as study above)

Whats missing is- attending the hajj changes peoples attitude towards other groups- this was studied below.

41
Q

Alnabulsi et al. (2019)
Study

A
  • Survey of 1194 pilgrims
  • Languages groups: 420 were Arabic speakers, 150 of Malay, 150 of Urdu, 120 of French, 120 of Persian, 120 of Turkish, and 114 of English.
  • Participants from 72 countries
  • 64.5% of the participants were male and 35.5% were female.
  • Sampled during the Hajj
42
Q

Alnabulsi et al. (2019)
Results

A

In line with contact theory, perceived cooperation among pilgrims indirectly predicted more positive outgroup attitudes (as well as enhanced Muslim identification), via identification with the crowd. In line with social identity and identity congruence explanations, positive emotional experience and the perception that the crowd embodied the Muslim value of unity predicted self-change variables through identification with the crowd.

All these 3 processes (positive experience, exhaustion, united crowd) operated with identification with the crowd - then you were more likely to have enhanced muslim identification and increased positive attitudes to outgroups.

43
Q

Transformations and mass gatherings health: two caveats

A
  • Positive effects such as support are not found in every crowds (eg. shopping crowds)
  • High levels of trust and enjoying proximity are also strongly associated with risk of spreading infectious diseases
44
Q

Crowds sum
1- cognitive transformation
2- relational transformation
3- affective transformation
4- what can mass gatherings increase?
5- where identity is realised and people have good contact with others, what can mass gatherings lead to?

A

1- Cognitive transformation – apply the category characteristics (including norms) to oneself

2- Relational transformation = when I see you as part of my group
–Recognition, validation, solidarity/ support

3- Affective transformation
–Emotional validation, support and identity enactment feel good

4- Mass gatherings can increase wellbeing (as well as having risks)

5- Where identity is realised and people have good contact with others, mass gatherings can lead to psych changes
–Identity commitment
–Positive attitudes to other groups

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