Critical Thinking - Reasoning Flashcards
1
Q
Uncritical Thinking
A
Automatically believing what you read or are told without pausing to ask whether it is accurate, true or reasonable
2
Q
Critical Thinking
A
Setting out actively to understand what is really going on by using reasoning, evaluating evidence and thinking carefully about the process of thinking itself
3
Q
Skepticism
A
Not automatically accepting something you hear, read or see as true
4
Q
Objectivity
A
Setting aside our own immediate feelings and preferences, and trying to identify the relevant facts of a situation as seen from the outside, rather than relying only on your own – or someone else’s – particular feelings or
point of view.
5
Q
Bias
A
Approaching something in a one-sided way that creates a distorted account of the way things actually are. Looking at things in a way that is entirely dominated by a particular prejudice or perspective.
6
Q
Conscious Bias
A
When someone deliberately presents a one-sided view of something, or explicitly holds a one-sided opinion about something
7
Q
Unconscious Bias
A
When someone’s opinions or decisions are distorted by factors that they are not even aware of. If, however, a bias is unconscious, it can be extremely difficult even to identify, let alone to challenge,
8
Q
What You See
Is All There Is:
A
from Daniel Kahneman the human tendency to pay attention only to what is immediately obvious, and to neglect the hidden complexities that exist in most situations. Relying too much on first impressions, feelings and the information we happen to have in front of us.
9
Q
Survivorship bias:
A
The tendency only to think about successful examples of something, failing to consider the bigger picture in which the vast majority of all cases are failures
10
Q
Confirmation Bias
A
We undervalue evidence that contradicts our beliefs And overvalue evidence that confirms them. The universal human tendency to use new information only to confirm existing beliefs, rather than seeking to improve and clarify your understanding.
11
Q
Dogmatism
A
The claim that certain principles or ideas are both absolutely true and immune to any form of critical scrutiny or discussion - whether this dogmatism is practiced by priests, scientists or politicians.
12
Q
Attention
A
The enemy of distraction
13
Q
Distraction
A
The enemy of attention
14
Q
Reasoning
A
Thinking about things in a sensible or logical way, and then presenting this thinking so as to permit meaningful debate, disagreement and collaboration
15
Q
Assertion
A
A statement of fact or belief, often delivered forcibly and provided without support or justification. It’s also something that, on its own, does little other than impart information.
16
Q
Argument
A
Persuasion through reasoning in support of a conclusion. An attempt to persuade someone through reasoning that they should agree with a particular conclusion. To attempt to provide reasonable justification for a particular conclusion
17
Q
Two elements of an argument
A
Broken down into two key elements: •• You are presented with a line of reasoning that… •• …seeks to convince you to accept a particular conclusion.
18
Q
Conclusion
A
the final point that someone making an argument is trying to convince you of. It's the point that everything else leads towards. One argument’s conclusion can be the starting point of another; but each argument only has one final conclusion.
19
Q
Searching for a conclusion
A
When you’re trying to work out whether someone is making an argument, begin by seeing if there is a particular conclusion they want to convince you of
20
Q
Non-argument
A
Any element of a piece of writing that does not attempt to persuade you of a conclusion through reasoning, and thus doesn’t qualify as part of an argument
21
Q
Description
A
Simply reporting information without any attempt at evaluating, commenting on or using the information to persuade. its purpose is to convey relevant information as clearly and neutrally as possible.
22
Q
Summary
A
A brief outline of key information, often setting out the main points covered in a longer piece of work.
23
Q
Opinion
A
Presenting a judgement without providing reasoning. Opinions tend to be personal judgements based on facts;
24
Q
Advice and Warnings
A
Opinions about what
someone should, or
should not, do
25
Q
Clarification
A
spelling out or demonstrating a particular concept Spells out what is meant by a particular phrase, idea or line of thought
26
Q
Illustration
A
Provides a particular instance or specific example to show how the point may apply in a particular instance.
27
Q
Explanation
A
Reasoning backwards from something assumed to be true. Suggests the reason or reasons that something came to be the way it is. Answers "Why?"
28
Q
Rhetoric
A
The attempt to persuade by appealing to emotions rather than by using reasoning. A general term for the art of persuasive speaking or writing, dating back to the ancient Roman and Greek world.
29
Q
Six rhetorical techniques
A
Flattery Appeal to novelty Appeal to popularity Appeal to sympathy Appeal to fear Jargon
30
Q
Flattery
A
praising someone in
order to get them to
do what you want.
31
Q
Appeal to novelty
A
saying that something
is new and so it must
be true or good.
32
Q
Appeal to popularity
A
saying that something
is popular, so it must be true or good.
33
Q
Appeal to sympathy
A
invoking sympathy as a sufficient reason for agreeing with something
34
Q
Appeal to fear
A
trying to frighten someone
into agreement.
35
Q
Jargon
A
using fancy, largely
meaningless words in
order to sound smart.
36
Q
Exaggeration
A
overstating the case, often as a rhetorical tactic; like overgeneralization, this is a way of making a far bigger claim than is actually the case
37
Q
Over-generalization
A
suggesting that something is more generally true than it actually is, often as a rhetorical tactic; making a far broader claim than is the case in reality
38
Q
Incentive-Caused Bias
A
We get whatever we reward forPeople with a vested interest in something will tend to guide you in the direction of their interest. Incentives influence the way people act. Change the incentive, and you’ll change the behavior.
39
Q
Commitment & Consistency Bias
A
Our tendency to continue to act according to the previous commitments we’ve made. It’s a reluctance to change our course of action once we’ve chosen it.
40
Q
The contrast principle
A
The principle that says, in effect, that our judgments of things are often biased by similar things we have seen immediately before. The way we judge pretty much anything is in comparison with something else.
41
Q
Premise
A
a claim
presented by an
argument in support
of its conclusion
42
Q
Conclusion
A
the final
proposition in any
argument, supported
by its premises
43
Q
Assumption
A
something relevant to an argument that has been taken for granted by the person presenting it, rather than spelled out
44
Q
Principle of Charity
A
the assumption that someone else is truthful and reasonable, and that their argument deserves stating in its strongest form
45
Q
Prejudice
A
holding a belief without consideration of the evidence for or against it; deciding in advance of hearing an argument what you believe to be the case
46
Q
Straw Man
A
an absurd simplification of someone else’s position that is obviously wrong or stupid, and that is only expressed so that it can easily be defeated
47
Q
Explicit premises
A
all the claims that someone has set out in support of their conclusion. this is in contrast to those things they have left unsaid and have instead left to be assumed.
48
Q
Implicit Premises
A
all the claims not spelled out by the person stating an argument, but are assumed as part of their reasoning and need to be included in reconstruction
49
Q
Claim
A
a statement used
to support one’s
argument.
50
Q
Proposition
A
a statement or
assertion that
expresses a
judgment or opinion.
51
Q
Belief
A
Presenting a judgement without providing reasoning. Beliefs tend to be convictions based on morality, faith or cultural context
52
Q
Deduce
A
Arrive at (a fact or
a conclusion) by
reasoning
53
Q
Fallacy
A
a flawed general type of argument that establishes a faulty connection between premises and conclusion, thus failing to give us a good reason to accept the conclusion
54
Q
Fallacious argument:
A
an argument whose conclusion does not follow from its premises, because its reasoning rests on an identifiable fallacy
55
Q
Appeal to popularity
A
a fallacious form of argument based on the assumption that whatever most people think must be true.
56
Q
Appeal to irrelevant
authority
A
a fallacious form of argument based on the perceived opinion of an authority without any expertise in a relevant area
57
Q
Unwarranted hidden
assumption
A
the faulty, unstated element of reasoning that a fallacy relies on, and that we aim to spell out in order to identify what is at fault
58
Q
Appeal to nature
A
confusing what you believe is ‘natural’ with a fundamental truth that everyone
ought to accept. Nobody should wash their hair: hygiene is unnatural!
59
Q
Appeal to tradition
A
confusing something that people have done for a long time with something
that must, therefore, be right. There’s nothing wrong with performing surgery without anaesthetic:
people did it for hundreds of years!
60
Q
Argument by
appeal
A
the fallacy of appealing to external factors such as authority or popularity to justify a conclusion, rather than using rigorous reasoning
61
Q
Ad hominem
A
the fallacy of attacking the person making an argument rather than what they actually say
62
Q
Irrelevant conclusion
A
this takes what appears to be a satisfactory piece of reasoning and then provides a conclusion that isn’t connected to what came before.
63
Q
Equivocation
A
using a word in two quite different senses while pretending that they are the same in order to create the appearance of reasoning
64
Q
The fallacy of
composition
A
mistakenly arguing that whatever is true of the individual parts must also be true of the whole
65
Q
The fallacy of
division
A
mistakenly arguing that whatever is true of the whole must also be true of its individual parts. This book is amazing and insightful. Thus, every word in it must be amazing and insightful as well.
66
Q
Begging the
question
A
putting the conclusion to be proven into your premises, thus producing something convincing-sounding that proves nothing. Universal justice is a great and noble aspiration – and it is thus excellent to pursue the ideal of just treatment afforded to all.
67
Q
Circular reasoning
A
an argument whose premise supports its conclusion, and whose conclusion supports its premise, making it a closed loop. I know that the Bible is the word of God, because we are told by God in the Bible that this is so.
68
Q
Post hoc ergo
propter hoc
A
the fallacy of assuming that, when one thing happens after another, the first thing must be the cause of the second thing. My uncle gave up smoking and drinking, and two days later he was dead. The shock must have killed him!
69
Q
Correlation is not
causation
A
the fallacy of assuming that, if two phenomena or sets of data closely follow one another, one must be caused by the other
70
Q
False dilemma
A
fallaciously claiming that, in a complex situation, it is only possible for one of two things to be true. You either accept that this course of action is in the best interests of our country, or you give hope to our enemies.
71
Q
loaded question fallacy
A
asking a question about one thing that buries some information surreptitiously in the wording of an argument in order to force an unwarranted assumption on someone.
72
Q
Faulty generalization
A
using a small amount of evidence to justify a much larger observation that isn’t actually warranted. I don’t know anybody who likes the current government. They’re hated by the entire nation!
73
Q
Slippery slope
A
arguing on the basis that, if one small thing is allowed to happen, an inevitable and increasingly serious chain of further events will be set in motion. Weed as a gateway.
74
Q
Base rate neglect
A
ignoring the underlying frequency of one element in an analysis, and thus potentially reaching an incorrect conclusion about the likelihood of a certain result. Most ideological extremists are angry. Few non-extremists are angry. This person is angry. So she is probably an ideological extremist.
75
Q
Heuristic
A
a cognitive short cut or ‘rule of thumb’, allowing for quick decision-making and judgement
76
Q
Cognitive bias
A
a particular situation in which mental heuristics introduce a predictable distortion into our assessment of a situation, resulting in a flawed judgement
77
Q
Affect heuristic
A
tendency to use the strength of positive or negative emotional reactions as a decision-making short cut
78
Q
Availability heuristic
A
a tendency to be disproportionately influenced by whatever most easily or vividly comes to mind when making a decision or assessing options
79
Q
Recency bias
A
a tendency to over-estimate the significance of more recent things, because they come more easily and vividly to mind
80
Q
Anchoring effect
A
the ability of a starting value or frame of reference to influence your subsequent judgements, even when it has no relevance to what you’re considering
81
Q
Focusing effect
A
the tendency to focus excessively on one striking aspect of something, thus failing to give full consideration to a full range of other relevant factors
82
Q
Representativeness
heuristic
A
the tendency to be influenced by the plausibility of a story or characterization, at the expense of underlying questions of its probability. Linda the bank teller.
83
Q
Stereotype
A
a commonly held, simplified and idealized view of the typical characteristics of something or someone of a particular type
84
Q
Social biases
A
a general term for instances of bias in our judgments about other people, groups of people, or social and cultural institutions. biases that specifically affect our judgements about other humans, and that can combine with structural social inequalities to create some of our world’s most urgent injustices.
85
Q
Framing effects
A
the way in which presenting the same scenario in different ways can affect judgement and alter preference, based on perceptions of loss and gain, positive and negative
86
Q
Re-framing
A
deliberately selecting a different way of presenting information in order to challenge the emphasis created by a particular initial framing
87
Q
Loss aversion
A
the observation that losses are more painful than equivalent gains, and that people thus tend to be biased towards loss avoidance when making decisions
88
Q
Prospect theory
A
people are more sensitive to losses than they are to gains – a sensible enough strategy in evolutionary terms – and that a strong aversion to perceived loss can disproportionately influence decision-making.
89
Q
Confirmation bias
A
the tendency to pay attention only to things that confirm our pre-existing ideas, and to ignore or seek to explain away evidence that contradicts them
90
Q
The sharpshooter
fallacy/clustering
illusion
A
the tendency to see a pattern where none exists, by imposing it after the event on evidence while ignoring whatever doesn’t fit
91
Q
Just world
hypothesis
A
the belief that everything balances out in the end and that the world is fundamentally arranged in a way that is fair
92
Q
Coherence effect
A
the tendency to judge information not by its accuracy or likelihood, but by how internally coherent a story
93
Q
Sunk cost fallacy
A
the tendency to continue expending energy on something you are emotionally invested in beyond the point at which it makes sense to abandon it
94
Q
Dunning–Kruger
effect
A
the tendency of people with little or no ability in an area to greatly over-estimate their ability, resulting in ignorance breeding unwarranted confidence
95
Q
Overconfidence
effect
A
the strong tendency for most people – and especially experts outside their domain of expertise – to have excessive faith in their judgements and abilities
96
Q
Behavioural
Economics
A
the application of psychological insights and methods to economics, exploring through experiment and observation the reallife decisions people make
97
Q
Reversion to
the mean
A
the tendency of an exceptional result to be followed by a less exceptional one, assuming a normal distribution of results over time
98
Q
Fundamental
attribution error
A
the tendency to disproportionately view events as the result of deliberate actions and intentions, rather than as a product of circumstances
99
Q
Moral luck
A
the paradoxical observation that we often judge someone harshly in moral terms for something that is not under their control, even though we, at the same time, accept the idea that someone should only be held responsible for things they can control.
100
Q
Alternative histories
A
all the other possibilities that did not play out in real life, but could have happened instead of the events we actually observed
101
Q
Outcome bias
A
the tendency to assess the quality of a decision once the result of that decision is known, rather than by considering whether it made sense at the time
102
Q
Survivorship bias
A
the tendency only to pay attention to survivors and success stories, creating a distorted picture that ignores failures and those who dropped out
103
Q
Hindsight bias
A
the tendency to see the past, in retrospect, as more predictable than it actually was – and to treat unforeseen events as though they were foreseeable
104
Q
Cherry-picking
A
deliberately selecting a few striking results or strong effects from within a larger piece of research while suppressing the rest, thus misrepresenting the investigation
105
Q
Normal distribution
bell curve
A
also known as a Gaussian distribution, this is a continuous distribution with a peak in the middle of a range of results that curve away symmetrically
