Critical Reasoning

Question 1

What are the components of an argument?

Answer 1

premise, assumption and conclusion

Question 2

what is a premise?
what is an assumption?

Answer 2

a proposition, statement or fact from which a conclusion is made
the implicit statement, which must be true so that the conclusion can be true

Question 3

1) necessary assumption
2) what phrases ‘necessary assumption’ contain?

Answer 3

1) unstated facts or opinions that MUST be assumed if the reasoning is to succeed logically.
2) an assumption that the argument (reasoning) requires
an assumption on which the argument depends (relies)

Question 4

sufficient assumption

Answer 4

unstated facts or opinions that, if assumed, allow reasoning to succeed logically

Question 5

How do you negate the conditional statement to find the assumption?

Answer 5

Don’t negate on the conditional part “if” - only negate on the latter part
i.e: If animals doesn’t have MRS, they don’t have self-awareness
Negation: If animals doesn’t have MRS, they have self-awareness

Question 6

What are some “Cause and Effect” signal words?

Answer 6

Therefore, Thus, So, Consequently, Hence, For this reason, As a result, It follows that

Question 7

What are some “Premise” signal words?

Answer 7

Because, Since, For, After all

Question 8

Which of the following indicates a flaw in the reasoning above?
What type of CR question is this?

Answer 8

Assumption-based question

Question 9

What is the word claim synonym for?

Answer 9

conclusion

Question 10

Develelop the defender assumption framework for this argument

In Kravonia, the average salary for jobs requiring a college degree has always been higher than the average salary for jobs that do not require a degree. Current enrollments in Kravonia’s colleges indicate that over the next four years the percentage of the Kravonian workforce with college degrees will increase dramatically. Therefore, the average salary for all workers in Kravonia is likely to increase over the next four years.

Answer 10

• Conclusion: the increase in the number of college-degree work force with higher than average salary (A) will cause the increase in the average salary for all workers in Kravonia (B)
• Defender Assumption: (A) is the sole cause for (B) ->
  (1) Imagine scenarios that can cause (B) (i.e: Scarcity of workforce can cause high average salary for all workers)
  (2) Negate that scenarios (scarcity won’t/can’t/doesn’t) = correct answer choice
  (3) To confirm: we can negate back the answer choice to see if the negation breaks the argument - If it does then the answer choice must be the assumption

Question 11

The statements above “best support” which of the following “assertions”?
What type of CR question is this?

Answer 11

Inference

Question 12

To reduce traffic congestion, City X’s transportation bureau plans to encourage people who work downtown to sign a form pledging to carpool or use public transportation for the next year. Everyone who signs the form will get a coupon for a free meal at any downtown restaurant.

For the transportation bureau’s plan to succeed in reducing traffic congestion, which of the following must be true?

A) Everyone who signs the pledge form will fully abide by the pledge for the next year.
B) At least some people who receive the coupon for a free meal will sometimes carpool or use public transportation during the next year.

Answer 12

Notice the light language is “to reduce traffic congestion” instead of “to eliminate..”:
- Even if the reduction in traffic congestion is tiny (example – say 1% reduction, i.e., 100 to 99), the plan would succeed

Therefore, we only need to assume that some of the people who sign the pledge or receive the coupon as a result will sometimes carpool or use public transportation - sufficient condition
- we don’t need (A) - “everyone” statement- must be true so that the bureau’s plan can succeed

Question 13

Best strategy to use for “some, at least, none, not all”

Of all the departments at City College, the Chemistry department has the highest percentage of classes with at least 20 enrolled students. However, the Biology department at City College has the highest percentage of classes with at least 30 enrolled students.

T or F: Not all of the Chem classes have either fewer than 20 or at least 30 students

Answer 13

• Rephrase the double negative: NOT ALL A’s are B = SOME are not B
• W/ the answer choice: some of Chem classes have not either fewer than 20 or at least 30 students = Our premise: The Chem department has the highest percentage of classes with at least 20 enrolled students.

Question 14

What is the since __ actually asking you to do?

The growing popularity of computer-based activities was widely predicted to result in a corresponding decline in television viewing. Recent studies have found that, in the United States, people who own computers watch, on average, significantly less television than people who do not own computers. In itself, however, this finding does very little to show that computer use tends to reduce television viewing time, since _______.

Answer 14

1) An correct answer choice must help strengthen the author argument (this finding does little to show…). In other words, it weakens the evidence of recent studies, and thereby the causation
2) In this case, Correlation/Causation + Selection Bias fallacy can do such a job: those own computers in the studies just happen to watch less TV to begin with than who don’t own computers

Question 15

What are the form for sufficient condition?

Answer 15

1) Usual Form: If/ When/ Whenever
2) Unusual form: Every, All, Any, Each
3) Rare (tricky) form: In order to, People Who

Question 16

What are the forms for necessary condition?

Answer 16

1) Usual Form: Then, Only/ Only If/ Unless
2) Unusual Form: Must, Required
3) Rare (tricky) form: Except, Until, Without

Question 17

Translate the fallacy of this argument: Every time it rains, the baseball field get wet. The baseball field is wet. It must have rained

Answer 17

The statement indicate the sufficient condition under the form of If/when A occurs, B occurs, hence its a fallacy for:
- B occurs then A must have occurred (F)

Question 18

Premise: A & B seem to appear together
C: Change A in order to change B
What typical fallacy is this? How do we weaken this type of argument?

Answer 18

• Change A in order to change B implies causation
• Point out that: change A but change B won’t happen because
  1) other factors cause B ->
  2) third factor cause both A & B
  3) Correlation between A & B

Question 19

T or F: An argument by generalization is weaker when its conclusion is more precise, and stronger when its conclusion is vaguer, given the same premises.

Answer 19

True

Question 20

When the argument relates to groups surveys, samples, or particular population, what should you be wary of?

Answer 20

Representativeness
or Data Flaws

Question 21

Technique: alternative way to translate Unless X, Y

How do you draw the implication from this sentence:
Unless interest rates drop significantly, housing prices should not increase during the next six months

Answer 21

X is necessary for not Y = The drop in interest rate is necessary for the increase in housing price.

In other words, when IR drop significantly, housing price should increase

Question 22

Translate & find sufficient (S) and necessary (N) condition in each

1) All of the State Univerisity Professors lecture on Wednesdays
2) No electrician is an architect
3) Sally will not attend the banquet unless Jan also attends the banquet
4) The children go to the park when the sun is shining
5) Only the good die young

Answer 22

1) If you are state univeristy professors (S), you must have lectured on wednesday (N)
2) If you are an electrician (S), you can’t be an architect (N)
3) If Sally attend the banquet (S), Jan must have attended as well (N)
4) If the sun is shining (S), the children will go to the park (N)
5) If you are the good (S), you must die young (N)

Question 23

Apply Conditional Statement Inference Technique

If Country X does not intervene militarily in Country Y, then the whole region will definitely fall under enemy influence.

It most logically follows from the statement above that, if Country X does intervene militarily in Country Y, then the whole region

(A) Will definitely fall under enemy influence
(B) Will probably fall under enemy influence
(C) Will probably not fall under enemy influence
(D) Will definitely not fall under enemy influence
(E) May or may not fall under enemy influence

Answer 23

Analysis: Doesn’t intervene is sufficient for the fall to occur
BUT we can’t infer that if the intervene happen, the fall won’t occur:
- Therefore, any answer choices with definite “will or will not” are incorrect answers
-> We can, however, draw with an implied degree of possibility for the effect (Choice E)

Question 24

What is the general rule for converting conditional statements to contrapositive form?

Answer 24

Put the negation of the necessary condition (N) in the first part while delegating the negation of sufficient condition (S) to 2nd part:
i.e: (1) People who are drive fast are dangerous = If you drive fast (S), you must be dangerous (N)
- Contrapositive: If you are not dangerous, then you must not be a person who drives fast) - Not “N” implies Not “S”

(2) John will go to the meeting (S) only if Paul goes to the meeting (N)
- Contrapositive: If Paul doesn’t go to the meeting, then John can’t go to the meeting - Not “N” implies Not “S”

Question 25

What is the universal inference of conditional statements (not the contrapositive form):

1) Only if hard work (N), you will succeed (S)
2) If you work hard (S), you will succeed (N)

Answer 25

“S” imples “N”
1) If you succeed, you must have worked hard
2) If you work hard, the result of success will have to happen

Question 26

What is the universal form of contrapositive for these statements

1) Only if hard work (N), you will succeed (S)
2) If you work hard (S), you will succeed (N)

Answer 26

“Not N” then “Not S”
1) No hardwork implies you won’t succed (doesn’t matter you have good lucks, great supports, talents…)
2) No succeed implies you didn’t work hard (absurd but logically equivalent)

Question 27

What is the universally incorrect inference of conditional statements?

1) Only if hard work (N), you will succeed (S)
2) If you work hard (S), you will succeed (N)
Why such inference entails logicall fallacy?

Answer 27

“Not S” implies “Not N”
1) If you didn’t succeed, so you didn’t work hard - FALSE
- you could work hard but you just didn’t succeed. Perhaps, you are just unlucky

2) If you don’t work hard, so you won’t succeed - FALSE
- You could get lucky or receive nepotism/other supports, so you can still succeed

Question 28

T or F:

Only If Paul goes to the meeting, John will go to the meeting is equivalent to
- If Paul goes to the meeting, John will go to the meeting

Answer 28

F - They are invariably different
- In only If, Paul goes to the meeting is the necessary condition (N), BUT:
- In If.. then, Paul goes to the meeting is the sufficient condition (S)

Note: “Only If N, S” = “If not N, not S” : If Paul doesn’t goes to the meeting, John won’t go to the meeting (the contrapositive Form: Not “N” implies not “S”)

Question 29

Best strategy to use for “some, at least, none, not all”

Some good cooks are gourmet cooks who pride themselves on always using extravagantly rich ingredients in elaborate recipes. Some good cooks can be characterized as fast-food cooks. They may use rich ingredients as long as the recipes are easy to follow and take little time. Other good cooks are health food enthusiasts, who are concerned primarily with the nutritional value of food. But even though not all good cooks are big eaters, they all enjoy preparing and serving food.

If the information in the passage is true, which one of the following CANNOT be true?

(A) Most good cooks do not use extravagantly rich ingredients.
(B) Everyone who enjoys preparing and serving food is a good cook.
(C) More good cooks who use extravagantly rich ingredients are big eaters than are good cooks who do not use such ingredients.
(D) There are fewer good cooks who enjoy serving and preparing food than there are good cooks who are big eaters.
(E) Gourmet cooks, fast-food cooks, and cooks who are health food enthusiasts are all big eaters.

Answer 29

1) CANNOT be true -> Eliminate the answer choices, whose possibilities can be true (even tiny probability for the extreme cases: choice B,C & E)
2) Focus to rephrase the double negative (i.e: NOT ALL good cooks are big eaters = SOME good cooks are big eaters)
3) Analyze choice D) - Is it possible for a smaller proportion of subgroup (SOME good cooks are big eaters) to be bigger than the entire general population (ALL good cooks enjoy preparing and serving food)? - 1000% NO

Question 30

I will pass the exam “if and only if” I study hard
1) What is the type of conditional statement?
2) How do you rewrite into the two implies statement?

Answer 30

1) Biconditional statement: include both conditions for one subject
2) If I study hard (sufficient condition), then I will pass the exam. And:
- Only if I study hard (neccessary condition), i will pass the exam

Question 31

Why (C) can be a trap answer

Editorial: The mayor plans to deactivate the city’s fire alarm boxes, because most calls received from them are false alarms. The mayor claims that the alarm boxes are no longer necessary, since most people now have access to either public or private telephones. But the city’s commercial district, where there is the greatest risk of fire, has few residents and few public telephones, so some alarm boxes are still necessary

Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the editorial’s argument?

(B) The fire department gets less information from an alarm box than it does from a telephone call.

Answer 31

Even the alarm box provide less info than a telephone call, it can be still necessary (in some cases: lack of cellular network, jam signals, etc…). Therefore, the editorial’s argument isn’t really weaken by this answer choice

Question 32

How do you pick a correct answer choice that strengthen/weaken the hypothesis?

Answer 32

Look for evidence that either supports or goes against the hypothesis/explanation in the answer choices

Question 33

Translate “If not” (contrapositive) to “Only If” conditional statement

What are the steps for the above exchange that is different from the contrapositive form

Answer 33

1) Determine which part is sufficient/necessary condition: If Not Y, Not X => Not Y is necessary while Not X is sufficient
2) Translation: Only If Y, X
i.e: Contrapositive: If Paul doesn’t goes to the meeting, John can’t go to the meeting
- Original Conditional Statement: Only if Paul goes to the meeting, John will go to the meeting

Question 34

fallacy of specificity:

Answer 34

An argument whose conclusion is too precise for its premises to justify

Question 35

What type of question is in disguise for this?

Although the pesticide TDX has been widely used by fruit growers since the early 1960’s, a regulation in force since 1960 has prohibited sale of fruit on which any TDX residue can be detected. That regulation is about to be replaced by one that allows sale of fruit on which trace amounts of TDX residue are detected. In fact, however, the change will not allow more TDX on fruit than was allowed in the 1960’s, because ____

Answer 35

On the one hand, the 1960s regulation prohibited the sale of fruit on which any TDX was detected. On the other hand, the new regulation allows the sale of fruit with trace amounts of TDX.
Paradox: the amount of TDX on the fruit will stay the same. Because ______ (RESOLVE)
i.e: 1960s technology could not detect trace amounts of TDX, which
could have always been present but not detected till now.

Question 36

Why this answer is a trap?

A study of children’s television-watching habits by the federal department of education found that children aged 7-10 who watched more than 25hours of television per week performed worse in school than children of the same age who watched fewer than 25hours of television per week. Therefore, parents of children aged 7-10 should prohibit their children from watching more than 25hours of television per week.

Which of the following if true, would best strengthen the argument?
A) A separate study, by renowned graduate school of education. found that when parents prohibited their children from watching any television, the children’s reading scores increased rapidly and significantly and stayed high indefinitely.

Answer 36

1) Causal Relationship: More than 25 hours watching TV -> lower performance in schools
-> Higher performance in schools mean those children didn’t watch more than 25hrs: our prediction for strengthen
2) Even though zero hours watching TV indicate that children watch less run 25hrs, this doesn’t mean the school performance of these two groups are equivalent. The result of a typical/ extreme case may not translate into other cases (i.e: watching for only 10,15, 20 hrs)

Question 37

What is interesting about this argument? Why choice A) doesn’t weaken it

Artistic success as an actor is directly dependent on how well an actor has developed his craft. This has been demonstrated by the discovery of a positive relationship between the number of classes taken by an actor and the number of professional productions in which that actor has appeared in the past two years.
A) The figures for the number of classes taken were based solely on information provided by actors.

Answer 37

1) It relies on two assumptions:
- How well developed an actor’s craft (A) determine/ cause the number of productions an actor has appeared in (C) - indicated by the number of classes (B)
- This number of production (C) indicate how success the artist is (D)
Therefore, A = D
2) Choice A implies that there is not a veracity of number of classes from actors, who are or are not successful - We just don’t know and need more information = not correct answer

Question 38

Why this answer is a trap?

It appears that the number of people employed by a typical American software firm decreased in the 1980s and 1990s. This trend is borne out by two studies, conducted 20 years apart. In a large 1980 sample of randomly chosen American software firms, the median size of the firms’ workforce populations was 65. When those same firms were studied again in 2000, the median size was 57.
Which of the following points to the most serious logical flaw in the reasoning above?

A) The median number of employees is not as sound a measure of the number of employees employed in an industry as is the mean number of employees, which accounts for the vast size of the few large firms that dominate most industries.

Answer 38

Although it may be true that the mean is a better measurement than the median, the specific scope in the answer about “few large firms that dominate most industries” is not mentioned in the stimulus

Question 39

T or F: If not X, not Y is equivalent to only if X, Y
Which is condition for which?

Answer 39

714 in OG 2021

T - X is the necessary condition (N) & Y is the sufficient condition (S) -
i.e: Only if she sleeps well tonight (N), she will do well on the test tomorrow (S)
-> If she doesn’t sleep well tonight, she won’t do well tomorrow (Contrapositive Form: Not “N” implies Not “S”)

Question 40

T or F: Unless X, Y can be understood as X is necessary for “NOT Y”

Answer 40

T - Unless interest rates drop significantly, housing prices should not increase during the next six months is equivalent to:
- Interest rates drop significantly is necessary for housing prices to increase (double negative of should-not-not)

Question 41

In the United States in 1986, the average rate of violent crime in states with strict gun-control laws was 645 crimes per 100,000 persons: about 50 percent higher than the average rate in the eleven states where strict gun-control laws have never been passed. Thus one way to reduce violent crime is to repeal strict gun control laws.
What does the author assume? What type of bias for this argument? How do we weaken it?

Answer 41

• The argument assumes that it is because of their strict gun-control laws that states with such laws have a high rate of violent crime.
• Causation: If that were so, passage of these laws should be associated with increased violent crime.
• To show a evidence/observations indicating that the opposite is true (i.e: The annual rate of violent crime in states with strict gun-control laws has decreased since the passage of those laws. )

Question 42

Why is this answer choice a TRAP?

The proposal to hire ten new police officers in Middletown is quite foolish. There is sufficient funding to pay the salaries of the new officers, but not the salaries of additional court and prison employees to process the increased caseload of arrests and convictions that new officers usually generate.

Which of the following, if true, will most seriously weaken the conclusion drawn above?

(A) In most US cities, not all arrests result in convictions, and not all convictions result in prison terms

Answer 42

1) Rephrase any answer choice w/ some, most, at least, none, not all (for i.e: In most US cities, some arrests…, and some conviction…)
2) This choice can go both ways - “some” may or may not lead to the increased caseload of arrests and convictions” - and hence it can’t really weaken the conclusion

Question 43

What is your observation on the %? Dissect the hidden math logic

A recent report determined that although only three percent of drivers on Maryland highways equipped their vehicles with radar detectors, thirty-three percent of all vehicles ticketed for exceeding the speed limit were equipped with them. Clearly, drivers who equip their vehicles with radar detectors are more likely to exceed the speed limit regularly than are drivers who do not.

Answer 43

1) The very small percent of drivers that equip their cars with radar represents for large percentage of vehicles ticketed to conclude that these drivers are likely to exceed the speed limit
2) Premise: Only 3% of drivers on Maryland highways had radar detectors (A)
- 33% of vehicles that got speeding tickets had radar detectors. (B = A)
Conclusion: Drivers with radar detectors are more likely to exceed the speed limit regularly than other drivers (A = D)
-Assumption: Drivers who get speeding tickets are more likely to exceed the speed limit regularly than others. (B = D)

Question 44

Translate into a simpler form & contrapositive

Maria will not speak during the meeting unless the chairman doesn’t speak

Answer 44

Unless X, Y = X is necessary for not Y:
- The chairman doesn’t speak is necessary for Maria to speak during the meeting
- Only If the chairman doesn’t speak (N), Maria will speak (S)
-> Contrapositive: If the chairman speaks, Maria won’t speak - Not N implies not S

Question 45

What similar question that you have encounter with?

Investigators concluded that human failure was not responsible for the fatal airplane crash last August, and since that time new and more stringent rules for identifying and reporting mechanical problems have been in effect. That accounts for the fact that reports of airplane mechanical problems have increased in frequency by 50 percent since last August.

Which one of the following is an assumption underlying the argument in the passage?
(A) Mechanical problems in airplanes have not increased by 50 percent since last August.
(B) Airlines are less reluctant to report mechanical problems than they previously were.

Answer 45

1) Like the Kranovia’s Defender Assumption Question, there is a causality in this argument: the more stringent rules force engineer to report many more mechanical problems than before.
2) Answer A) is our defender. If we negate the statement, we can’t conclude that the stringent rules actually lead to the increase in number of reports

Question 46

Why this answer choice is a trap?

Ythex has developed a small diesel engine that produces 30 percent less particulate pollution than the engine made by its main rival, Onez, now widely used in Marania; Ythex’s engine is well-suited for use in the thriving warehousing businesses in Marania, although it costs more than the Onez engine. The Maranian government plans to ban within the next two years the use of diesel engines with more than 80 percent of current diesel engine particulate emissions in Marania, and Onez will probably not be able to retool its engine to reduce emissions to reach this target. So if the ban is passed, the Ythex engine ought to sell well in Marania after that time.
Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument above depends?
D. The government’s ban on high levels of pollution caused by diesel engines, if passed, will not be difficult to enforce.

Answer 46

The fact that the law is difficult to be enforced does not mean that it will never be enforced - The assumption that the argument relies on must be air-tight.
- However, this answer choice can help weaken the conclusion that “So if the ban is passed, the Ythex engine ought to sell well in Marania after that time”

Question 47

Why (A) is a trap answer?

Mayor: The financial livelihood of our downtown businesses is in jeopardy. There are few available parking spaces close to the downtown shopping area, so if we are to spur economic growth in our city, we must build a large parking ramp no more than two blocks from downtown.

Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the mayor’s reasoning?

(A) There are other more significant reasons for the financial woes of downtown businesses in addition to a lack of nearby parking spaces.

Answer 47

The main conclusion is that building a large parking ramp no more than two blocks from downtown is necessary for economic growth — “If.. then” form indication
- Therefore, even though (A) indicates that construction of the parking ramp would likely not be sufficient to spur growth, it doesn’t weaken the mayor’s argument that the ramp would be necessary

Question 48

30% fall into trap (A), how come? What’s key lesson?

Many economists hold that keeping taxes low helps to spur economic growth, and that low taxes thus lead to greater national prosperity. But Country X, which has unusually high taxes, has greater per-capita income than the neighboring Country Y, which has much lower taxes. Some politicians have concluded from this that high taxes do not hinder national prosperity.
The politicians’ reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on which of the following grounds?
A. It fails to take into account that the per-capita income of a country does not determine its rate of economic growth.

Answer 48

You can mistakenly interpret that the higher taxes didn’t prevent the greater per-capita, which is the cause for national prosperity/economic growth HOWEVER, the true interpretation is:
- High per-capita income can only be the indication of such effects (prosperity/growths): a correlation rather than causation between the two

Lesson: Note there is no “since, because” language, and hence we can’t draw the bridge causation .

Question 49

Why (B) is the trap answer. What is the key lesson?

When mercury-vapor streetlights are used in areas inhabited by insect-eating bats, the bats feed almost exclusively around the lights, because the lights attract flying insects. In Greenville, the mercury-vapor streetlights are about to be replaced with energy-saving sodium streetlights, which do not attract insects. This change is likely to result in a drop in the population of insect-eating bats in Greenville, since ___

(B) the bats are unlikely to feed on insects that do not fly

Answer 49

Rephrase the conclusion: the non-concentrated insects around light will result in a drop in population
- BUT there are still other flying insects for consumption. It’s just that they don’t concentrate around the light.

Question 50

For positive form of conditional statements (i.e: If/When/Only If)

What are the steps for the exchange from a conditional statement to its contrapositive (the logical equivalent)

Answer 50

1) Find the sufficient and necessary condition within the statements
2) Place the negation of the neccessary condition 1st, while putting the sufficient condition after
i.e: John will go to the meeting (sufficient) only if Paul goes to the meeting (necessary)
-> Contrapositive: If Paul doesn’t go to the meeting (not N), John cannot not go to the meeting (not S)

Question 51

Translating “NO”

1) No A’s are B
2) Few A’s are B
3) NOT ALL A’s are B

Answer 51

1) All A’s are not B
2) Most A’s are not B
3) Some A’s are not B

Question 52

Translate into a simpler conditional statement

Without John’s positive attitude, this would have been a disaster

Answer 52

Unless (If-not) John’s positive attitude…disaster is equivalent to:
- John’s positive attitude is necessary to avoid the disaster
- Only If there is John’s positive attitude, we can avoid the disaster
-> Contrapositive: If there isn’t JOhn’s positive attitude, this would have been a disaster

Question 53

What is the universal rule for “and” + “or” exchange in contrapositive?

i.e: Happiness is never achieved if-not love or passion is present

Answer 53

“AND” Become “OR”
“OR” becomes “AND”
Rephrase: Presence of love or passion is necessary to achieve happiness
Contrapositive: If love and passion is not present (NOT “N”), happiness is never achieved (NOT “S”)
In other words, If happiness is achieved, it must have been that love or passion is present

Question 54

Translate into contrapositive form

Happiness is never achieved unless love or passion is present

Answer 54

Only If love or passion is present, happiness is achieved
- Contrapositive: If love and passion are not present, happiness can’t be achieved

Question 55

What does this question subtly testing?

The United States government uses only a household’s cash income before taxes to determine whether that household falls below the poverty line in a given year; capital gains, non-cash government benefits, and tax credits are not included. However, yearly cash income is not a fool-proof measure of a given household’s disposable income. For example, retirees who live off of capital gains from an extensive portfolio could earn hundreds of thousands of dollars, yet be classified by the government as living in “poverty” because this income is not included in the calculation.
Which of the following, if true, validates the contention that the government’s calculation methods must be altered in order to provide statistics that measure true poverty?
(C) Most established research studies conducted by the private sector indicate that the number of people truly living in poverty in the U.S. is less than that indicated by the government’s calculation method.

Answer 55

Representativeness: The author first gives an example that is, a person who has a large income, yet is classified by the government as living in poverty. One example, however, is generally not enough to invalidate an entire method; no method is perfect and there are always a few results that are not consistent with the overall conclusion. In order to validate, or strengthen, the conclusion, we need to show that the government’s method is fundamentally inferior to some alternative that would produce more valid results.

Question 56

T or F: Conditionality implies the causation relationship

Answer 56

F: It reverses- Causation implies the conditionality, which only indicates the correlation

Question 57

What is the flaw in this argument? How to imrpove it stronger?

Biologists carefully caught, weighed, and released fifty frogs out of the hundreds in a local lake. These fifty frogs weighed an average of 32.86 grams apiece. So, the frogs in the lake must also weigh an average of 32.86 grams apiece.

Answer 57

fallacy of specificity - the conclusion is too precise
- A stronger argument might use the same evidence to conclude less precisely that the frogs in the lake weigh on average between 25 and 40 grams apiece

Question 58

Why this answer choice is a TRAP?

Psychologist: In a study, researchers gave 100 volunteers a psychological questionnaire designed to measure their self-esteem. The researchers then asked each volunteer to rate the strength of his or her own social skills. The volunteers with the highest levels of self-esteem consistently rated themselves as having much better social skills than did the volunteers with moderate levels. This suggests that attaining an exceptionally high level of self-esteem greatly improves one’s social skills.
The psychologist’s argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which of the following grounds?
- It relies on evidence from a group of volunteers that is too small to provide any support for any inferences regarding people in general.

Answer 58

Pay attentions to every words in the conclusion - the author claims that “…improve one’s social skill” - he/she didn’t generalize to lots of people as suggested in the answer choice

Question 59

Rephrase the following into an OR statement

It is false that both statement 1 and statement 2 are true

Answer 59

Then it must be true that:
- Either statement 1 OR statement 2 is false.
- OR Both statement are false