Criterion A - Chem Flashcards
What are the 3 basic particles of an atom?
- Proton - Positive
- Electron - Negative
- Neutron - Neutral
What are Protons?
Protons the positively charged particle in an atom and are located in the nucleus. The number of protons defines what element an atom is, e.g if an atom has 8 protons, it is Oxygen.
What are Electrons?
Electrons are the negatively charged particles in an atom. Unlike Protons and Neutrons, they are not located in the nucleus. They are in the shells orbiting the nucleus instead. The number of electrons in an atom is usually the same as the number of protons, unless its an ion, in which case the number of electrons is different than the number of protons
What are neutrons?
Neutrons are the neutral particle in atoms. They are located in the nucleus. The number of neutrons differs from the number of protons and electrons in an atom, and to find the number you need to use Math(ew). Atoms of elements with different numbers of neutrons are called Isotopes.
What are atoms?
Atoms are the building blocks of matter. Each element has an atom specific to it, and these atoms have at elements properties. The number of protons defines what element the atom is
What is the nucleus, and what is located in the nucleus?
The nucleus is a small, dense region at the center of an atom. In comparison to the rest of the atom, it is tiny, but it holds almost all of the mass of the atom. It also contains all of the protons and neutrons
What are isotopes?
Isotopes are atoms of the same element, with a different number of neutrons. Isotopes are usually just named after the element and also a number (e.g Carbon-12 or Carbon-14). Most isotopes of an element usually have the same properties, as they have the same number of protons & electrons. However, if there are too many or too little neutrons in relation to the protons, the isotope becomes unstable and radioactive :D
What is an example of an isotope?
The element Hydrogen has 3 Isotopes, Hydrogen (yes the isotope and element have the same name), with no neutrons, Deuterium, with 1 Neutron & Tritium, with 2. The first is just the regular stuff that makes up water, the second is basically just the first but like slightly heavier, and the third is RADIOACTIVE HELL YEA.
Tritium is also unstable just like me lol
1.
What is the goal of elements bonding?
To have a full outer shell
How many electrons are in a full outer shell?
8 Electrons
Hydrogen and Helium are the only elements with 2 electrons in their outer shell
How do elements gain a full outer shell with covalent bonding?
They share electrons
What are some properties of Covalent Bonds?
- Liquid or Gas
- Insoluble
- Insulative (doesn’t conduct electricity)
- Low Melting and Boiling Point
- Brittle (Not Malleable)
Why do atoms want a full outer shell?
They become much more stable
What are some examples of a Covalent Bond?
- Water - H2O
- Carbon Dioxide - CO2
- Nitrogen - N2
What types of elements are involved in Covalent Bonds?
2 Non-Metals
How do elements bond through Ionic Bonding?
They give away and recieve electrons
Non-metals recieve electrons, and metals give away electrons
If Fluorine has 9 electrons, how many does it need for a full outer shell?
1 Electron
Remember the 2.8.8 Rule
What is a cation?
A postive ion
Metal Atoms are always the cation in an ionic bond
What is an anion?
A negative ion
Non-Metal Atoms are always the anion in an ionic bond
also its pronounced like onion definitely mhm i would never lie
What are some properties of an ionic bond?
- Solid
- Soluble
- Conductive, only when melted or dissolved
1 - High melting and boiling point
- Brittle (Not Malleable)
1E.g salt is only conductive when it is dissolved in water
Why are Ionic Compounds only conductive when dissolved or melted?
When they’re solid, the electrons are locked in place by the bonds of the lattice, however these bonds are broken when the compound is dissolved or melted, meaning the electrons can move about freely, and is thus conductive
What are polyatomic ions?
Polyatomic ions are ions with more than one atom (what a suprise). They cannot be separated, and whenever there is a change, it applies to all atoms together as a whole
Some examples include Hydroxide (OH-) and Nitrate (NO3 -)
Please look up the actual formulas for the examples, I can’t do the proper small numbers on the formulas
What is a lattice?
A lattice is a giant structure formed of repeating cations and anions, which is repeated millions of times. Most Ionic Compounds form these lattices and it results in crystals. (Other ionic compounds that aren’t crystals dont have these lattices, but this isnt that important)
This is the same thing as the Giant Covalent Bonds thingy
What are some examples of an Ionic Bond?
- Sodium Chloride - NaCl - Table Salt
- Sodium Bicarbonate - NaHCO3 - Baking Soda
- Sodium Fluoride - NaF - Its the important thing in toothpaste
Salt is the only important one, I just needed more examples lol
What types of elements are involved in Ionic Bonding?
1 Metal and 1 Non-Metal
The metal atom becomes a cation and the non-metal atom becomes an anion
What is an allotrope?
An allotrope is the different forms of an element, depending on how they atoms are bonded together
E.g. Carbon has various allotropes such as diamond and graphite
What characterizes a Giant Covalent Bond?
A giant covalent bond consists of a very large repeating lattice. Depending on the element and allotrope, the pattern of the lattice can differ, and so can the properties
Diamond has a different structure than Graphite, look up the patterns
What are some properties of Diamond?
- Each Carbon atom is bonded to 4 others
- Hardest known natural substance (that’s what she said)
- Highest melting point of any element, 3500°C
- Does not conduct electricity
- They are used for their hardness in tools such as drills and saws, because this will keep them sharper and harder for longer. Also used for Jewelery because oooo shiny rock
Diamonds suck for Jewelry because Capitalism lol, if you want shiny rock get sapphire instead, they’re basically identical
What are some properties of Graphite?
- Conducts electricity
1 - Each Carbon is bonded to 3 others, leaving 1 free
- Is separated into layers, which makes it slippery
- Because of slipperiness, its used for lube lol and also pencils because yes
1 Graphite is like the only Giant Covalent thingy that does this
Why is Graphite conductive, but other Giant Covalent Bonds aren’t?
Graphite has a structure that is split into many different layers. These layers are very weakly bonded together, so electrons can move freely between them, and so its conductive
What are some examples of Giant Covalent Bonds?
- Diamond
- Graphite
- Fullerene
- Sand
What is the structure of metal bonds?
They consist of many cations all connected in a lattice, which are surrounded by a sea of electrons
What are some properties of metallic bonds?
- Solid
- Insoluble
- Conducts Electricity
- High melting and boiling point
- Malleable (Bendy, Not brittle)
What are some examples of Metallic Bonds?
- Gold
- Silver
- Iron
- Copper
All metals that are just by themselves are metallic bonds
What is Kinetic Theory?
Kinetic Theory is the theory that all particles are constantly in motion. The energy from this motion is called kinetic energy. The more the particles move around the more kinetic energy they have. Solids have the least kinetic energy, and gases have the most
What is the solid state of matter?
Like why is it solid or what are its properties
The particles of solids are tightly packed together. They cannot be moved easily, and this gives it a fixed shape and fixed volume
What is the liquid state of matter?
Like why is it liquid or what are its properties
The particles are free to move around each other, however they cannot pull apart from each other. This means they don’t have a fixed shape, and instead just take the shape of their container, but they do have a fixed volume
What is the gaseous state of matter?
Like why is it a gas or what are its properties
Particles that make up a gas can pull apart and move past each other. This means they have neither a fixed shape or volume
What is a Physical Change?
A physical change is a change that changes the physical properties of something, such as the size, shape and state of matter, however the chemical properties, such as the molecules its made of, stay the same. Physical Changes are often reversible.
What is an example of Physical Change?
Ice melting or Water freezing is an example of a Physical Change. It is a change of state, is easily reversible, and the chemical properties stay the same, as it stays as H20 throughout the process
What is a Chemical Change?
Chemical changes are processes that change somethings chemical properties. The process is typically irreversible
What is an example of Chemical Change
Something burning is an example of a chemical change. Once something is burnt, you cannot revert it to its original state. The chemical properties change as well e.g wood becomes ash, which has different chemical properties
What is a compound?
A compound is when elements combine chemically. The result typically has different chemical properties than the reactants. It is physically impossible to seperate a compound, as instead you would need a chemical reaction to achieve this
What is an example of a compound?
Most, if not all molecules are compounds, e.g Water, CO2, Salt blablabla imma use Water as an example
Water is a compound because the 2 reactants, Hydrogen and Oxygen, 2 Gases, combine to form Water. The result has different chemical properties, e.g it is liquid
What is a mixture?
A mixture is a combination of 2 or more substances. They don’t chemically combine, so they still retain their original chemical properties and they can be seperated. This doesnt have to be liquid, and can be basically anything. A pizza is technically a combination of 2 or more substances, ergo it is a mixture (thats not a joke). Mixtures can be heterogeneous or homogeneous
What is a homogeneous mixture?
A homogenous mixture is one where the substances within are evenly distributed throughout the mixture. This is easy to remember because homo means the same which I have no doubt you can remember
What are some examples of a homogenous mixture?
Saltwater is a homogenous mixture. It is a mixture because it is made up of salt and water (suprisingly), but they are not chemically combined, and its easy to seperate them if you just evaporate the water. It is a homogenous mixture because the salt is distributed evenly throughout the water
What is a heterogeneous mixture?
A heterogenerous mixture is a mixture where the substances are not evenly distributed. You can remember this because hetero means different
What is an example of heterogeneous mixture?
As mentioned before, Pizza is an example, because the substances are not distributed perfectly evenly.
What is the Atomic Number?
The Atomic Number is the number of protons the element has. This number is typically the whole number that is basically just the regular number of the element, e.g Hydrogen is 1, Oxygen is 8. It can also mean the number of Electrons, unless the atom is an ion
What is the group number on the periodic table?
The number of electrons in the outer shell. The group numbers are the columns. Elements in the same group have similar properties, e.g all the alkali metals have the same properties.
The electrons in the outer shell are called valence electrons btw
What is the period number on the periodic table?
The number of shells an element has. The period numbers are the rows.
What is Group 18(or Group 8) on the periodic table?
Noble Gases. They are very unreactive because they have full outer shells
What is Group 1 on the Periodic Table?
Alkali Metals. They are very reactive because they only have 1 valence electron (electron in the outer shell).
What are some examples of Noble Gases?
Just name 2 or 3, thats enough
- Helium
- Argon
- Krypton
- Xenon
- Radon
- Oganesson
Why are Alkali Metals so reactive?
They only have 1 electron in their outer shell, which is very easily taken away, meaning they’re more reactive.
Also the further down the periodic table you go the more reactive they get. If you want an explanation as to why this is, ask me in school or look it up idc
What are some examples of alkali metals?
You dont need to name them all, like 2 or 3 is good
- Lithium
- Sodium
- Potassium
- Rubidium
- Caesium
- Francium
1
1This one is so reactive that it can only be used in military stuff :(
What is Group 17 (Or group 7) on the periodic table
Halogens. They are all toxic and reactive, and they all have 7 electrons in their outer shell.
Unlike the Alkali Metals, Halogens get less reactive the further down you the periodic table you go. Once again, if you want an explanation, ask me in school or look it up
What are some examples of Halogens?
Once again you don’t need to name them all, 2 or 3 is good
- Fluorine
- Chlorine
- Bromine
- Iodine
- Astatine
- Tennessine
What are Transition Metals?
Transition metals are the large block of elements in the middle of the periodic table. They include the basic well known metals such as Iron, Gold, Silver etc. They tend to Hard, have high melting and boiling points1, and are good conductors of heat and electricity
1Mercury is an exception to this, as it is liquid and has a low melting point
What are alloys?
Alloys are a mixture of a metal with another substance, and they tend to be stronger, harder, and have other improved properties. For example, Stainless Steel is a an alloy that rusts a lot less than just Iron on its own
What are some examples of alloys?
- Stainless Steel - Iron + Chromium + Nickel
- Not-Stainless Steel (Just call it Steel) - Iron + Carbon
- Bronze - Copper + Tin
- Brass - Copper + Zinc
Where is the divide between Metals and Non-Metals?
The divide is a sort of staircase down, that you can probably see on the periodic table that you definitely have somewhere
What is Organic Chemistry?
Organic Chemistry is the Chemistry of Carbon-based Lifeforms. (We are carbon based lifeforms for example)
What is a functional group?
A group of compounds that all have the same general reactivity and properties (e.g alkanes, alkenes and alcohol :D)
What are the prefixes in Organic Chemistry?
Meth - 1 Carbon Atom
Eth - 2 Carbon Atoms
Prop - 3 Carbon Atoms
But - 4 Carbon Atoms
Pent - 5 Carbon Atoms
Hex - 6 Carbon Atoms
Hept - 7 Carbon Atoms
Oct - 8 Carbon Atoms
Non - 9 Carbon Atoms
Dec - 10 Carbon Atoms
What is an alkane?
- Hydrocarbons, they only have Carbon and Hydrogen atoms
- Contain only single bonds
- end in -ane
- Theyre all pretty flammable lol
Examples of Alkanes
Methane - Cow farts
Propane - Bunsen Burner
Butane - Lighters
You can tell that theyre alkanes because they all end in -ane
What is the general formula for Alkanes?
CnH2n+2
Brainscape is kinda cringe ngl, check in your books if youre confused
What is an Alkene?
- Hydrocarbons, they contain only Carbon and Hydrogen
- They contain a double bond between 2 Carbons
1 - They all end in -ene
1 This also means that Methene cannot exist, as you would need at least 2 Carbon Atoms, and molecules starting with “Meth” have only 1 Carbon atom
What is the general formula for Alkenes?
CnH2n
What is an Alcohol?
- Consist of Carbons, Hydrogens, and one Oxygen in an OH Molecule
- The OH is always bonded to a C
- All of them are poisonous lol
- very delicious nom nom
What is the general formula for Alcohols?
CnH2n+1OH
What are the 2 ways Ethanol can be formed?
- Fermentation of Glucose (For Wine, Beer, etc.)
- The addition of steam (H2O) to Ethene. This is called Hydration (For disinfectants. perfumes, solvents, etc.)
How do Alkanes react?
They don’t. theyre about as boring as physics. They do burn however
What is complete combustion?
How does it happen & What does it produce?
Complete Combustion is when there is enough oxygen to burn, producing carbon dioxide and water vapor when something is burnt
CH4 (Ethane) + O2 –> CO2 + H2O
What is incomplete combustion?
How does it happen & What does it produce?
Incomplete Combustion is when there isnt enough Oxygen to properly sustain a fire, producing Carbon Monoxide instead of Carbon Dioxide
CH4 (Ethane) + O2 –> CO (Carbon Monoxide) + H2O
How do Alkenes react with Halogens?
Alkenes are generally very reactive due to being unsaturated. With Halogens in particular, Halogens only add onto the Alkene. For example, if you added Bromine(Br2) to Ethene(C2H4), you would get Dibromoethane(C2H4Br2)1. Also, an important thing to remember is that the double bond between the 2 Carbons break apart to bond with the extra atoms.
1 I think that it is Dibromoethane and not Dibromoethene, because it loses the double bond and pretty much every source I look up says Dibromoethane im not sure tho
Where do alkanes and alkenes come from?
Fossil Fuels –> Crude Oil –> Alkanes –> Alkenes
Alkanes are turned into alkenes in a process called cracking
crack is great
What is Cracking?
not the drug
Cracking is when you take a larger Alkane and usually turn it into a shorter Alkane and an Alkene using high temperature and a catalyst
e.g
C4H10(Butane) –> C2H4(Ethene) + C2H6(Ethane)
C4H10(Butane) –> C3H6(Propene) + CH4(Methane)
C4H10(Butane) –> C4H8(Butene) + H2(Hydrogen)1
The product of the cracking changes based on the amount of temperature, pressure and catalyst used
1Sometimes its just the Alkene version of the Alkane and some H2
Some more examples of Cracking because why tf not
C8H18(Octane) –> C7H14(Heptene) + CH4(Methane)
C8H18(Octane) –> C5H10(Pentene) + C3H8(Propane)
C8H18(Octane) –> C8H16(Heptene) + H2(Hydrogen)
C8H18(Octane) –> 2 C4H8(Butene) + H2(Hydrogen)
Again, the products depend on the temperature, pressure and catalyst
What are Polymers?
Polymers are chains of many small molecules (monomers) that all form a longer chain
What are some examples of polymers?
- Natural: DNA, Proteins, Carbohydrates
- Synthetic: Plastic (PET, PP, Polystyrene etc.)
How would you model/draw a Polymer?
You draw it by taking the repeating unit, putting it in brackets, and write an n in the bottom right, the n representing how often it repeats.
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z3v4xfr/revision/6
This link shows how to do it
Brainscape is still being cringe, so you have to copy and paste the link
What is Fractional Distillation, and what is it used for?
Fractional Distillation is a way to separate different alkanes from crude oil by utilizing their different boiling points. Lower boiling point alkanes will evaporate earlier than higher boiling point alkanes, and so they are separated by evaporating at different points and to different degrees.
What are the eight products of Crude Oil, in order and their approximate boiling points?
(nvm i was wrong we dont need boiling points lol)
- Refinery Gas
- Petrol
- Naphtha
- Kerosene
- Diesel
- Lubricant Oil
- Fuel Oil
- Bitumen
What are the uses of the eight products of Crude Oil?
- Refinery Gas - Bottled Gas
- Petrol - Cars
- Naphtha - Very important thingy for chemicals
- Kerosene - Planes
- Diesel - Cars but mostly Trucks
- Lubricant Oil - Would you believe me if I said its used for Lubricants (also Wax)
- Fuel Oil - Ships
- Bitumen - Roads and Roofing
