Criterion A - Bio Flashcards
What is Cell Theory?
The idea that all living things are made up of at least one cell.
What are the 3 Parts of Cell Theory?
- All Living Organisms are composed of one or more cells
- The Cell is the Basic Unit of Life
- All Cells are produced from other cells
What is a cell?
A cell is the smallest functioning part of a multicellular organism, or a whole organism if its unicellular.
What are cells made up of?
Cells contain various parts called “Organelles”. These organelles make the cell function, and each has a different purpose
E.g. The mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell
What do cells carry?
Cells carry DNA that is passed on from cell to cell.
What is the Energy Flow that occurs in cells called?
Metabolism
What is the Organization of Life?
Atoms > Molecules > Organelles (Means “small organ”) > Cells
Describe Prokaryotes
- Bacteria
- Unicellular
- Are small, simple cells
- Do not contain nuclei
Describe Eukaryotes
- Includes, plants, animals, fungi and protists
- can be unicellular or multicellular
- Do contain nuclei
- Are larger and more complex
- Have many organelles which have their own membranes
- Are highly specialized for their function
Both Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells have…
Both:
- have DNA
- have a Cell membrane
- have ribosomes (to make protein)
Only Prokaryotic Cells are…
Small, Simple, Unicellular Bacteria with no nucleus
Only Eukaryotic Cells are…
Complex, uni- or multicellular with many organelles like cytoplasm, lysosomes and a nucleus
What are Cell Walls?
Cell Walls are the outermost layer in Plant Cells. They exist as a sort of replacement for bones, while also protecting the cell
What is the Cell Membrane?
Plasma membrane, in most cells. Usually located within the Cell Wall. It controls what goes in and out of the cell
What is the Purpose of the Cell Membrane?
Control the materials entering & leaving the cell
Supports the cell
What is Cytoplasm?
Gel-like substance that fills the cell
Site of many chemical reactions
All Cells have…
Ribosomes to assemble proteins (one of the most important jobs of the cell)
DNA, which includes the instructions on how to make Proteins
Cell Membranes, to seperate the interior of the cell and the outside environment
What are the characteristics of a cell?
Movement
Respiration
Sensitivity
Growth
Reproduction
Excretion
Nutrition
What are the levels of Organisation?
Cells -> tissues -> organs -> organ systems -> organism
What is a tissue?
A tissue is a group of similar cells, which are all working together to perform a specific function. A group of tissues is called an organ
What are the 4 types of tissues?
- Epithelial
- Connective
- Muscle
- Nervous
What are the 11 Body Systems?
- Integumentary
- Skeletal
- Muscular
- Circulatory (aka Cardiovascular)
- Respiratory
- Digestive
- Excretory (aka Urinary)
- Reproductive
- Nervous
- Endocrine
- Immune (and Lymphatic)
We need to memorize all of these and what they do yay so fun pls kill me
What is the Integumentary system?
- Consists of the skin, hair & nails
- Serves as a physical barrier against germs
- Sensory Organ
- Helps with temperature
What is the Skeletal system?
- Consists of Bones (suprisingly) & Cartilage
1 - Supports for the entire body and protection for the organs
- Muscles are attached to them for movement
- Stores Minerals
- Bone Marrow (the stuff inside of the bone) produces blood cells
1There’s a flashcard about cartilage to explain it don’t worry
What is the Muscular system?
- Consists of muscles (lol no way)
1 - Generates heat
- Voluntary and Involuntary Movement
- Voluntary Movement: Moving your arms and legs and stuff
- Involuntary Movement: Move blood throughout the body & move food through digestive system
1There are 3 types of muscles but that seemed way too complicated however if you want to look at them go to the slides
What is the Circulatory (Cardiovascular) system?
- Consists of Heart, Blood & Blood Vessels
1 - Transport of oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and wastes
- Helps regulate body temperature
- Carries cells and antibodies that fight infection
1 Blood Vessels include arteries, veins and capillaries
What is the Respiratory system?
- Consists of the diaphragm, lungs and associated tubes
- Brings in Oxygen for cellular respiration
- Gets rid of CO2 waste
- Relies on circulatory system for gas transport
1
1Blood transports the oxygen gained throughout the body
What is the Digestive system?
- Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines and accessory organs, such as liver and pancreas
- It breaks down food, both physically and chemically
- It gets nutrients which is then distributed to the body through the circulatory system
- It eliminates waste
What is the Excretory (Urinary) system?
- Consists of the skin, liver, kidneys,
bladder & associated tubes - It removes waste from the body, using sweat glands in the skin, removing toxins using the liver and using the kidneys to filter blood
1
1 This is also why its called Urinary System
What is the Reproductive system?
- In males, consists of testes & penis
- In females, consists of ovaries, uterus & vagina
- Produces Gametes
1 - Is responsible for reproduction
(I mean its kinda simple idk what else to write)
1More information on gametes later
What is the Nervous system?
- Consists of the Central Nervous System, the brain and spinal cord, and the Peripheral Nervous System, the nerves
- Central Nervous system is responsible for general thoughts, feelings and telling the rest of the body what to do
- Peripheral Nervous system sort of act as messengers. They bring information, such as touch and pain, to the brain to interpret, and they bring information from the brain to the rest of the body, to tell it what to do
What is the Endocrine system?
- Consists of various glands across the body
- These glands secrete hormones that prompt various bodily functions
What is the Immune & Lymphatic systems?
- Consists of White Blood Cells, Spleen, Lymph nodes, glands and vessels
- Responsible for protection against disease
- Collects intercellular fluids (aka lymph) and returns it to the circulatory system
1
1More information on this later once again
What is cartilage?
Cartilage is a sort of soft connective tissue that’s basically just “soft bone”. Its more flexible than bone, because its used in joints, such as the knees and elbows. Its also what makes up a lot of the nose and ears.
What is the diaphragm?
The Diaphragm is a muscle underneath the lungs which expands and contracts to allow the lungs to breath in and out
What are hormones?
They act as chemical messengers that activate certain body functions. For example, Testosterone is a hormone that prompts puberty in males, while Estrogen does the same in females
What is Physical(Mechanical) Digestion?
When food gets broken down in physical ways, e.g chewing in the mouth, or stomach churns to break down the food
What is Chemical Digestion?
When food is broken down through chemical means, e.g acid in the stomach
Enzymes are almost always responsible for chemical digestion
What is the digestive system pathway?
- Starts at the Mouth
- Esophagus
- Stomach
- Small Intestine
- Ends at the Large Intestine
What is the function of the mouth?
Begin Physical & Chemical Digestion. Physical by chewing the food, and chemical by breaking it down with the saliva. Carbs begin to be digested here.
What is the function of the Esophagus?
It transport food to the stomach using peristalsis
Ill explain peristalsis later
What is the function of the stomach?
To digest food more physically and chemically. Physically through churning, and chemically through stomach acid. This is where proteins are digested.
What is the purpose of the Small Intestines?
Chemical Digestion & it moves nutrients into the bloodstream using villi
More on Villi later again
What is the purpose of the Large Intestines?
Water and electrolytes are removed from waste, the waste is stored in the rectum and excreted from the anus
What is peristalsis?
Muscular Contractions in the esophagus that move food down into the stomach
What are the Villi?
Villi are small finger like projections on the walls of the small intestine that are there to increase the surface area, and allow nutrients to be absorbed more efficiently
What are the 2 reactants that cells need to make energy?
Oxygen - from the Respiratory System
Nutrients - from the Digestive Syste,
What is the Respiratory System pathway?
- Nose and/or mouth
- pharynx (back of throat) and larynx (voicebox)
- trachea (aka – windpipe)
- lungs
- trachea splits into two bronchi - one for each lung
- smaller and smaller bronchioles
- alveoli – covered in capillaries for gas exchange with blood -> oxygen is delivered to all cells by the blood
I suggest looking at the slides for more detail and pictures
What is diffusion?
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
Remember the skittles example Ms Dufault showed us in class
What are the alveoli?
You should pronounce these as olive oil
The alveoli are air sacks that are responsible for taking the oxygen out of the air and putting it into the bloodstream. The alveoli are very small and theres a lot of them
Why are the alveoli small and numerous?
The reason is that the smaller and more of them there are, the more surface area there is, similar to the Villi. This allows them to absorb Oxygen much more efficiently.
What organelle is used in Photosynthesis?
Chloroplasts (Which contains the chemical for Photosynthesis, Chlorphyll)
Why do plant cells have cell walls, but animal cells don’t?
Plants don’t have bones, so they need another way of staying upright to reach the sunlight, which is what cell walls are used for
What chemical is used in Photosynthesis?
Chlorphyll
(Which is located inside the organelles, Chloroplasts)
What is the formula for Photosynthesis?
6 Water + 6 Carbon Dioxide —> 1 Glucose + 6 Oxygen
6 H2O + 6 CO2 —> C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Light energy is used to transform it
Where is the stomata located and why?
The stomata is located on the bottom of leaves to keep them in the shade and prevent sunlight from evaporating too much water
What controls when the stomata opens and closes?
2 guard cells on either side
What are the stomata used for?
Gas Exchange, the stomata open to collect carbon dioxide and oxygen, however risk losing water in the process
What is the cuticle?
A waxy, protective covering on the plants. They are hydrophobic to prevent water loss, and they keep out unwanted substances
When are the stomata open?
During the day due to photosynthesis, and they close during the night
What are the function of the roots?
- Anchor the plants in the ground
- Store food
- Collect Water and minerals (tiny root hairs absorb most of it)
What are transport tissues?
They appear as veins on the leaves, and are also in the roots and the stem. Vascular Tissue transports water, minerals and glucose throughout the plant. There are 2 types of Vascular tissue, Xylem and Phloem
What is the Xylem?
Xylem is a transport tissue in the plant which distributes water & dissolved minerals from roots to leaves. Nutrients only go upwards
What is the Phloem?
Phloem is a transport tissue in the plant which distributes sugars from photosynthetic cells in the leaves to living cells throughout the plant. This glucose goes both directions.
What energy is used in Photosynthesis?
Light Energy
(Abhinav somehow took 4 tries to figure this out)
What organelle is responsible for cellular respiration?
The Mitochondria
(is the powerhouse of the cell)
What energy is produced by cellular respiration?
ATP
What does ATP and ADP stand for?
Adenosine Triphosphate and Adenosine Diphosphate
(this isn’t that important if you don’t want to memorize it)
What is the purpose of ATP?
To store energy
How does the ATP cycle work?
When energy is needed, a phosphate is broken off of an ATP molecule, turning it into ADP. When food is eaten, it is converted to a phosphate molecule and connected back onto the ADP to turn it back into ATP
There’s a great image on the slides that you can look at, but i can’t put it on here because Brainscape is blegh also the thingy is on slide 5
What is the formula for Cellular Respiration?
Glucose + 6 Oxygen ——> 6 Carbon Dioxide + 6 Water
C6H12O6 + 6O2——> 6CO2 + 6H2O
Generates ATP
This is also the reverse of the Photosynthesis formula, which makes it easier to memorize
What is the Cellular Carbon Cycle?
The Cellular Carbon Cycle is a cycle of photosynthesis and cellular respiration in plants. They generate Glucose and Oxygen, and then consume it to create Energy, Carbon Dioxide and Water. They use this Carbon Dioxide and Water to Photosynthesize again, and then repeat the process
There’s a great image on the slides that you can check out, but I can’t put it on here because Brainscape is blegh also its on Slide 18
What does a cell need energy for?
- Growth & repair
- Transport
- Reproduction
- Synthesis of molecules
(these are just some examples from the slides)
What is Glycolysis?
Glycolysis is the process of the splitting a glucose molecule. This occurs in the cytoplasm of all cells (every organism). 2 ATP is made during Glycolysis, which is a little. Glucose is broken down further, however this happens in different ways, depending on if oxygen is present or not.
What is Anaerobic Respiration?
Anaerobic Respiration occurs after Glycolysis, if no oxygen is present. Also known as fermentation, it occurs in the Cytoplasm and makes a small amount of ATP. It creates Carbon Dioxide and lactic acid or alcohol and it only partially breaks down the glucose. It can be in the form of either Alcoholic Fermentation or Lactic Acid Fermentation
What is Aerobic Respiration?
Aerobic Respiration occurs after Glycolysis, if oxygen is present. It occurs in the mitochondria and makes a lot of ATP. It completely breaks down Glucose and also creates carbon dioxide and water. This is also literally just basic cellular respiration that we’ve been learning about.
What is Alcoholic Fermentation?
Alcoholic Fermentation is a form of Anaerobic Respiration, which occurs in yeast and bacteria. CO2 and alcohol is made as a result. Shockingly, Beer and Wine are made using this.
What is Lactic Acid Fermentation?
Lactic Acid Fermentation occurs in some Bacteria and animals and makes Lactic Acid (Surprisingly). In animals, it occurs as a result of tiring exercise, or when a burst of energy is needed. This results in a burning sensation or fatigue, such as when you work out.
Idk where else to put this put if you want a better explanation for Glycolysis and Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration and stuff
You should check out the thingy on the slides. Its an image on slide 7 and its way better than whatever garbage I wrote down
What is the indent in the enzyme, where the enzyme and substrate bond, called?
The Active Site. Each Enzyme has an active site that is molded to its specific substrate
What happens when an enzyme denatures, and how does it happen?
When an enzyme denatures, it is completely unusable, and cannot be repaired. It happens when an enzyme is in an environment that is too far from its ideal pH and temperature
What does the optimal pH and temperature for enzymes mean?
The specific pH and temperature that the enzyme works most efficiently in. It varies between different enzymes
What is a catalyst ?
A catalyst is something that speeds a process up.In biology, catalysts are called Enzymes and exist to catalyze various reactions, meaning they speed them up.
What do enzymes do to substrates?
Depending on the enzyme, substrates can be either broken apart, or bonded together
What is substrate concentration?
Substrate concentration is the amount of substrate in a specific area. The more substrate there is, the higher the reaction rate. However if there is too much substrate, the reaction rate of the enzymes can no longer increase, as there are too many substrates and not enough enzymes
Can enzymes be reused?
Enzymes are never used up in a reaction
HOWEVER, if they become denatured, they are unusable.
What is reaction rate?
The reaction rate is the speed at which the enzymes process substrates. Certain conditions, such as being in the optimal pH and temperature, will allow the reaction rate of the enzymes to increase.
What are substrates?
Substrates are molecules such as sugars, proteins and starches that are processed by the enzymes
What is the purpose of the endocrine system?
Secretes hormones that
control multiple body functions,
including growth, development,
metabolism, sexual development, etc.
Direct copy from Body systems review slide 45
