Crime and Deviance - Paper 3 Flashcards
Paper 3
What is crime?
Breaking the law
What is deviance?
Going against society’s norms and values
What does Durkheim say about crime? (Functionalist)
It is an inevitable feature of social life because individuals are exposed to different situations and not everyone is equally committed to the norms and values of society. There are some benefits for it
What are the benefits of crime said by Durkheim? (Functionalist)
Collective conscience, enables social change, acts as a safety valve, acts as a warning light
What is collective conscience? (Functionalist)
The values can atrophy unless people are reminded of boundaries between right and wrong e.g., incidents of child abuse allow society to reinforce social control over child abusers and reinforce boundaries e.g., James Bulger and Sarah’s Law
How does crime enable social change? (Functionalist)
Some deviance is necessary to allow new ideas to develop and society to change and make progress e.g., LGBTQ+, EMG, women/suffragettes
How does crime act as a safety valve? (Functionalist)
Deviance allows people to relieve the stress of society e.g., mass outbreaks of violence like riots can be seen as a way of avoiding more serious challenges to social order e.g., cost of living protests about salary
How does crime act as a warning device? (Functionalist)
Shows that society isn’t working properly e.g., high rates of suicide, truancy and crime point to issues in society that need solving before social order is disrupted
How do marxists criticise functionalist ideas of crime being beneficial? (Functionalist)
Little acts of violence are allowed by bourgeoisie because it stops a revolution and maintains inequality. WC crime is more visible which puts the blame on the WC. Hiding white collar crime which enforces inequality. Government work for capitalist society and they set the laws. Means policies will be made to eradicate WC crime not white collar crime. Capitalist state create inequality
What is Robert Merton’s strain theory? (Functionalist)
Deviance can result from the culture and structure of society. He looks at the value consensus in American society and the feeling of anomie that individuals face when they are unable to achieve material wealth.
He argued crime and deviance took place when there was a clash between the goals society sets its members and the means or ways it says the goals should be obtained. He was aware that everyone has not got the same goal the goals link to a person’s position in the social structure.
He said that the main goal people were taught to aim for was material success i.e. become filthy rich. The system worked well as long as people could achieve the goals set by society
What does Marcuse say about why strain theory occurs? (Functionalist)
Mass culture transmitted through media - it encourages consumerism and form goals. Creates unrealistic goals and ideals to distract from real issues - hegemonic curtain. Manufactured needs
What are Merton’s modes of adaptation? (Functionalist)
Conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism and rebellion
What is the mode of adaption conformity? (Functionalist)
The individual adheres to goals and means with little chance of success
What is the mode of adaption innovation? (Functionalist)
The person accepts the goals of society and uses different means to achieve them e.g., criminal activity
What is the mode of adaption ritualism? (Functionalist)
The means are used but individuals give up on the goals e.g., a teacher who turns up to work for the salary but is not invested in their pupils achievement
What is the mode of adaption retreatism? (Functionalist)
The individual rejects goals and means e.g., alcohol and drug addicts
What is the mode of adaption rebellion? (Functionalist)
Both goals and means are rejected and substituted by new ones e.g., political activists - extinction rebellion
What are the criticisms of Merton? (Functionalist)
- It takes crime stats at face value - does not consider they may not show the full picture. Someone may be stealing to survive e.g., food. It ignores class inequalities
- It presents crime as working class issues, he is right they mostly feel strain but they are not all committing crime and they are not the only class committing crime. Covers up white collar crime committed by bourgeoisie
- Assumes that everyone shares the goal of material success. People have different goals and means not everyone is the same
- It only accounts for utilitarian crime - crimes with financial gain
- Marxists argue it ignores repressive laws brought in by the ruling class to criminalise the poor and not the rich
What does Cohen say about status frustration and the reactive delinquent subculture? (Functionalist)
Working class youth believe in the success goals of mainstream culture but their experiences of education and living in poor do not give them legitimate means to obtain these goals.
They experience status frustration as they react to this situation by developing their own values and form a delinquent subculture. This is based on a reaction to and is a reversal of accepted forms of behaviour
What is Hirschi’s bonds of attacchment? (Functionalist)
Social order is based on shared values and socialisation through institutions integrating individuals into society. Rather than focusing on what forces people turn to crime, Hirschi asks why most people DO NOT commit crime even when the temptation is there. He believed that people with strong social bonds were less likely to turn to crime and where these bonds were absent, criminality was more likely
What are the four bonds of attachment? (Functionalist)
Attachment, commitment, involvement and belief
What is the bond attachment? (Functionalist)
How much do we care about others? How many people are we close to?
What is the bond commitment? (Functionalist)
How much do we have to lose if we get caught committing a crime?
What is the bond involvement? (Functionalist)
How busy are we, do we have time for crime?
What is the bond belief? (Functionalist)
How strongly do we feel we should abide by the rules of society?
How do the New Right say crime is more likely to occur? (Functionalist)
We need a nuclear family structure it is more likely to occur in SPF with no male role model
What are the Marxist criticisms of Hirschi? (Functionalist)
White collar crime might be missed it doesn’t explain why this occurs. Someone with more power can cover up their crimes. Anyone can commit crime. Marxists would say capitalism causes crime not inadequate socialisation. CJS favours MC so WC seen to happen more. Ignores crimes of passion, spur of the moment and focuses on utilitarian crime
What are the criticisms of functionalist-based explanations of deviance? (Functionalist)
- Assue that there is inital value consensus that we deviate from. Taylor et al argue that this is wrong and not everyone buys into mainstream goals. For example, some sects reject the struggle for material success
- They don’t explain why white middle calss commit crime
- They rely on the patterns shown in stats and many crimes are not reported or may not be classified in a way that shows the reality
- They claim that youths are committed to values of delinquency and this cannot be true as most stop committing crime by adulthood
- Matza criticises them for implying that delinquents have different norms and values to the rest of society, they still reject crime as do most people but justify their own actions through techniques of neutralisation
What are subcultural theories of crime? (Subcultural)
Explain deviance in terms of a particular social group. Certain social groups develop norms and values that are different from those held by other members of society. Subcultural theory usually focuses on why working class people commit crime - they focus on juvenile delinquency - which is often malicious and not linked to material or financial goals. They often seek to explain why juvenile delinquency has a collective character
What is the process of status frustration? (Subcultural)
Lower working class boys want success but cannot achieve their goals because cultural deprivation leads to educational failure and dead-end jobs –> They suffer from status frustration and turn to criminal paths to achieve success –> An alternative set of norms and values is adopted - a delinquent subculture - which reverse mainstream culture by valuing activities such as stealing, vandalism and truancy
What does Albert Cohen say about delinquent subculture? (Subcultural)
Cohen’s work updated Merton’s position and combined both structural and subcultural theories of deviance. He argues that individuals want status, respect and to feel values - if this was not achieved it led to status frustration
What is a criticism of Cohen’s theory? (Subcultural)
It is deterministic and a generalised statement to say all lower working class boys will suffer from status frustration, Girls can have status frustration too. Marxists would say that it isn’t cultural deprivation causing it but the bourgeoisie keeping the WC WC.
Box argues that Cohen’s theory only applies to a minority of delinquents. The rest accept mainstream standards of success but resent being seen as failures and turn against those who they feel look down on them
What is Cloward and Ohlin’s illegitimate opportunity structure? (Subcultural)
Accept Merton’s explanation of deviance in terms of the legitimate opportunity structure, but they argue that he failed to consider the illegitimate opportunity structure. For some subcultures an illegal career was available and this meant they could achieve societal goals. There is greater pressure on the WC to deviate because they have less opportunity to succeed by legitimate means. They identified 3 responses
What are the 3 responses to illegitimate opportunity structure? (Subcultural)
Criminal, conflict and retreatist subculture
What are criminal subcultures? (Subcultural)
They are criticised by utilitarian crimes such as theft. They develop in stable working class areas. This provides a learning structure and career path for aspiring young criminals as an alternative to the legitimate job market
What are conflict subcultures? (Subcultural)
These are usually in socially disorganised areas with a high population turnover and lack of social cohesion. They engage in violence and gang warfare - status is achieved through violent acts
What are retreatist subcultures? (Subcultural)
Emerge amongst the lowest classes these are double failures, they have failed to achieve in mainstream society and illegitimate structures. The response is often drug and alcohol abuse, paid for by theft and prostitution
What are the evaluation points of Cloward and Ohlin? (Subcultural)
- Taylor, Walton and Young criticise Merton, Cloward and Ohlin for assuming that everybody is committed to the success goal of achieving wealth. They point out the existence of other possible goals and note that certain groups, such as hippies make a conscious choice to reject conventional goals
- South believes that the three subcultures are too distinct and that one subculture often emerges into another. Many drug addicts in retreatist subcultures are also money making drug dealers. Also goods stolen to buy drugs for retreatists may be sold within criminal subcultures
How can we argue that the current economic climate makes people more likely to turn to illegitimate means? (Subcultural)
People will turn to illegitimate means due to things such as the cost of living crisis. A rise in shoplifting and theft. Rise in retreatism so reject goals and means out of frustration
What does Miller say about lower class subculture? (Subcultural)
Lower classes had their own distinctive values which were passed on from generation to generation and which actively encouraged lower-class men to break the law. He identified 6 focal concerns of the lower class.
What are the 6 focal concerns? (Subcultural)
Smartness, trouble, excitement, toughness, autonomy and fate. Miller believed that delinquency was the result of an exaggerated conformity to these focal concerns
What is the focal concern smartness? (Subcultural)
A person should be both witty and look food
What is the focal concern trouble? (Subcultural)
“I don’t go looking for it BUT…”
What is the focal concern excitement? (Subcultural)
It is important to search out thrills
What is the focal concern toughness? (Subcultural)
Being physically stronger than others is good and it is important to demonstrate this
What is the focal concern autonomy? (Subcultural)
It is important not to be pushed around by others
What is the focal concern fate? (Subcultural)
Individuals have little chance to overcome the wider fate that awaits them
Can focal concerns only be applied to lower classes? (Subcultural)
It can be applied to all classes e.g., upper classes gamble for thrills and take drugs for excitement. They may have autonomy because they don’t want to be pushed around
What are the evaluation points of Miller? (Subcultural)
Miller provides little evidence to show that these are specifically lower class values. They could apply to males and potentially females across the class structure. Especially with the rise of ladette culture - 80s/90s drink till you black out culture, engaging in heavy drinking
What is Wills’ learning to labour study? (Subcultural)
- Studied a group of boys called ‘the lads’
- They believed themselves to be superior teachers and other pupils
- They had no interest in gaining academic qualifications
- They did as little work as possible, and passed the time with bad behaviour
- They were unhappy at being treated like children, and felt they belonged in the adult world
- They formed a counter-school subculture - this was racist, sexist and valued working class masculinity
- Can link to Miller and focal concerns and Cloward and Ohlin’s illegitimate opportunity structure
What is Parker’s view from the boys study? (Subcultural)
Conducted research, in 1974, into delinquents in Liverpool. At the time, there was a trend whereby Liverpool youths would regularly steal car radios and become involved in similar behaviour. Parker was open about being a researcher and was keen to ask questions about the relationship between gang members. Parker discovered that the boys in his study stole consumer products in order to feel part of the community from whom they were stealing. Criminal subculture, innovators and illegitimate opportunity structure
What is Venkatesh’s gang leader for a day study? (Subcultural)
His research is regarded as highly valuable for the insight it gave into gang culture in America and the impact of a gang on an area. He originally entered the housing projects with the aim of conducting interviews with young, black men living in poverty. The gang was reluctant to talk at first and he was met with open hostility and threats of violence. Venkatesh observed the behaviour of gang members at all levels in the Black Kings and found the structure of the gang to be hierarchical and highly organised. Most foot soldiers in drug gangs made only $3.30 an hours and JT made little more than a junior manager in the shop. Conflict and criminal subcultures
What does Charles Murray say about criminals? (Subcultural)
They are the underclass and it happens due to perverse incentives, dependency culture, deviant families, culture of criminality and poverty
What does Taylor say about Murray’s views on the underclass? (Subcultural)
Rejects Murray’s views but accepts that an underclass does exist. He believes that young, unskilled working class males have been affected by increasing inequality and declining job prospects. Underclass criminal activity is a result of material deprivation rather than unacceptable culture and a lack of norms and values
What would Marxists argue about the labelling of a group as the underclass? (Subcultural)
Marxists would say that the underclass are negatively labelled to keep them from having power. These negative labels such as criminals may lead to a SFP and them committing crime. Creates a moral panic. In a capitalist society the bourgeoisie don’t want revolution and blame it on benefit scroungers and illegal immigrants when it is the upper class greed which causes poverty. HEGEMONIC CURTAIN
What did Tham study? (Subcultural)
Compared welfare policies and crime rates in Britain and Sweden. He found that in the 1980’s crime had increased much faster in Britain than Sweden despite Sweden having a more generous welfare state. This shows that having a generous welfare state doesn’t always cause complacency. Those on benefits aren’t all scroungers, it is a generalisation
What did Mooney study? (Subcultural)
Argues there is no link between SPF and criminality. SPF are more likely to be victims of crime. This shows that you cannot say that all SPF will be the offender. Feminists would say that portraying SPF as the reason for crime would be misogynistic. The New Right are using it to push across their values of traditional values but evidence opposes this
What are the evaluation points of subcultural theory? (Subcultural)
Taylor et al: criticise Merton, Cohen and Cloward and Ohlin for assuming that everyone is committed to achieving wealth and ignore other life goals
Davide Matza: argues that delinquents are, to a considerable extent, committed to the same values as other members of society. Deviance becomes possible when techniques of neutralisation’ are sued which temporarily release them from the hold society has over them
What are the techniques of neutralisation? (Subcultural)
Condemnation of condemners, appeal to higher loyalties, denial of responsibility, denial of victims and denial of injury
What is the technique of neutralisation condemnation of condemners? (Subcultural)
The offender feels a sense of unfairness of being picked on for something others have done and not been punished for
What is the technique of neutralisation appeal to higher loyalties? (Subcultural)
The offender claims that the rule or law had to be ignored because more important issues were at stake. The offender was for example standing ip for his family/community/race
What is the technique of neutralisation denial of responsibility? (Subcultural)
The offender denies that is was their fault it wasn’t me it was alcohol/drugs
What is the technique of neutralisation denial of victim? (Subcultural)
The offender claims that in this particular case the victim was in the wrong - for example in a rape case where the woman was dressed in a way that led them on
What is the technique of neutralisation denial of injury? (Subcultural)
The offender claims that the victim was not really hurt or harmed by the crime. Often used to justify theft from a company as opposed to stealing from individuals
What are subterranean values? (Subcultural)
Once potential delinquents have freed themselves from social constraints, they are in a state of DRIFT and may go on to commit deviant acts. Matza explains the attraction of deviance in therms of SUBTERRANEAN VALUES. These values encourage enjoying yourself, acting on the spur of the moment, being aggressive and seeking excitement. Respectable members of society only express these values at carefully controlled moments, but delinquents express them at inappropriate times for example, seeking excitement at school or being aggressive while at work. Looks at why people commit crime - not always financial gain. More inclusive of other types of crime: joyriding
What is the interactionist approach time crime and deviance? (Interactionism)
- Questions why some acts by some people come to be regarded as criminal
- For this reason, it is often called labelling theory
- They believe that no act is criminal or deviant in itself
- Certain acts become criminal or deviant because society defines them as such
How is nudity criminal in some cases and deviant in others? (Interactionism)
It is acceptable on TV or beaches but unacceptable when there are underage children. Leaning occurs through social interaction and the help of others. Social constructivism has changed nudity was accepted in Ancient Greece
What does Becker say? (Interactionism)
Labelling theory. People are labelled with things such as criminal or non-criminal. Through the SFP people live up to these labels because they have been told what they are so believe it to be true and act upon it. Someone who is labelled as criminal may carry out criminal acts because of their label
What are the 6 stages in the labelling process? (Interactionism)
- Moral entrepreneurs label individuals and their behaviour as deviant
- Once an individual or group is labelled e.g., as criminal, deviant or mentally ill, others see them only in terms of that label
- It becomes what Becker calls a master status
- Labelling also causes the labelled group or individual to see themselves in terms of the label
- This may produce a SFP in which the label actually makes itself become true
- Develop a deviant career
What does Becker argue about deviancy? (Interactionism)
There is no such thing as a deviant act. An act only becomes deviant when it is perceived that way by individuals in society. Becker suggests that the police operate with pre-existing conceptions and stereotypical ideas of what constitutes as a ‘criminal’ and criminal areas etc. This affects the response they have to these individuals
What acts were once deviant? (Interactionist)
- Homosexuality - was illegal, no legal due to things like protests
- Women working - men left for WW2 so women had to take over
- Women’s vote - Suffragettes protested and had hunger strikes
What does Stanley Cohen say about crime and deviancy? (Interactionist)
Media can sensationalise and exaggerate the reporting of crime and deviance. The term moral panic was used to describe this process. It is based on a false or exaggerated idea that some group’s behaviour is deviant and is a menace to society. Groups are referred to as folk devils.
What are symbolic shorthands? (Interactionist)
The media use things such has hair styles, items of clothing, modes of transport etc, as icons of trouble makers. Symbolisation –> exaggeration and distortion –> prediction of further trouble
What are some recent examples of moral panics? (Interactionist)
How HIV/AIDS was reported
Homosexual people - folk devils
Derogatory phrases such as gay plague
What would marxists say about moral panics? (Interactionist)
Bourgeoisie are in control of media so can identify a folk devil to create a moral panic. This means people are against a certain group which distracts them from the real issues of society - Hegemonic curtain
What was Jock Young’s study on marijuana? (Interactionist)
Participant observation studying ‘hippie’ marijuana users in London over 2 years to demonstrate how media generates deviant behaviour. He found that the police had a media derived stereotype of hippie drug users as junkies and layabouts – Marijuana users feel prosecuted by the police. The Police then united marijuana users by making them feel like outsiders. In self-defence the hippies then retreated into a closed group united around marijuana smoking and deviant norms and values. They were then defined and treated as outsiders- they expressed this difference through radical dress sense and long hair – a drug subculture was developed. The original police stereotype was created and confirmed- self-fulfilling prophecy. Their opportunities for normality are then reduced because of labelling, the drug problem is amplified. Then drugs charges may lead to segregation and also the possibility of a normal life is reduced and may lead to a deviant career.
What are some problems with Jock Young’s study? (Interactionist)
Researcher bias which affect validity - he took part in the activities. Results may favour the group. He was also using drugs so this may have affected him
Who identified primary and secondary deviance? (Interactionist)
Lemert
What is primary deviance? (Interactionist)
Insignificant acts that have not been publicly labelled for example speeding or stealing stationery from work. There are no consequences as long as nobody finds out
What is secondary deviance? (Interactionist)
This is the result of a societal reaction. Being caught and publicly labelled as deviant and stigmatised by society
What did Goffman look at? (Interactionist)
Examined the treatment of mental patients in institutions and his findings illustrate the idea of Lemert’s secondary deviance. He found how deviance can actually be created by the societal reaction to it.
When inmates arrive in the mental hospital, pressure is placed on them to accept the institution’s definition of them as ‘mentally ill’. The inmates’ individuality is removed through what Goffman calls a MORTIFICATION PROCESS
What is the mortification process? (Interactionist)
- No freedom/independence (constantly watched and assessed)
- No freedom of expression (uniform and regulation clothes)
- Patients washed, disinfected and hair cut
- Given a number ID
- They decide the schedule for the day not the patient/prisoner (strict regime)
- Part of a collective
What are the effects of the mortification process? (Interactionist)
It leaves inmates unprepared for life on the outside, they become institutionalised because some accept the label of deviant, others believe they are unable to function on the outside, even if they do leave they will be labelled as an ex-mental patient
What are the types of shaming through labelling that Braithwaite came up with? (Interactionist)
Disintegrative and reintegrative shaming
What is disintegrative shaming? (Interactionist)
Where not only the crime, but the person is labelled negatively and is excluded from society e.g., child sex offenders
What is reintegrative shaming? (Interactionist)
Whereby the act is labelled, but not the person e.g., petty crime. Braithwaite argues that the second type of shaming has a more positive role. It avoids stigmatising the offender whilst still making them, and others, aware of the negative impact of their offence. This encourages forgiveness and acceptance back into society. It avoids pushing people back into secondary deviance
What are some examples of disintegrative shaming? (Interactionist)
- Sex offenders
- Rapists
- Murderers
- Pedophiles
What does Cicourel say about typifications? (Interactionist)
officers TYPIFICATIONS – their common-sense theories or stereotypes of what the typical delinquent is like – led them to concentrate on certain ‘types’. these typifications led to the higher arrest of certain groups of people and also increased police presence in areas that had a higher density of people that fit the typification – leading to more arrests of the people living in these areas.
Other agents of social control within the criminal justice system reinforced this bias. For example, probation officers held the common-sense theory that juvenile delinquency was caused by broken homes, poverty and lax parenting. Therefore, they tended to see youths from such backgrounds as likely to offend in the future and were less likely to support non-custodial sentences for them.
What does Cicourel say about negotiation of justice? (Interactionist)
Justice is not fixed but negotiable. When a middle-class youth was arrested, he was less likely to be charged. This was partly because his background did not fit the idea of the police’s ‘typical delinquent’, and partly because his parents were more likely to be able to NEGOTIATE successfully on his behalf, convincing the control agencies that he was sorry, that they would monitor him and ensure he stayed out of trouble in future, etc. As a result, typically, he was ‘counselled, warned and released, rather than prosecuted. Good lawyers cost money but are good
What would marxists say about the negotiation of justice? (Interactionist)
If someone has less cultural capital they are likely to be a police typification. These people are working class and these typifications are enforced by the RC as a hegemonic curtain
Why do official stats show that most criminals are young, male working class and often black? (Interactionist)
This is because these people are the ones stopped and arrested most because of police typifications creating an inaccurate representation of who commits crime
What are the strengths of interactionism? (Interactionist)
- Provides insights into nature of deviance not provided by structural theories
- It challenges the idea that deviants are different to normal people
- It shows the importance of the reactions of others in creating and defining deviance. It shows the impact of labelling and provides a reason why crime occurs
- It reveals the importance of stereotyping with typifications and how this can warp statistics
- It shows how far official stats are socially constructed by police bias rather than fact. This is because of them being as result of police typifications
- It reveals the role of those in power in defining what is deviant. This can act as a hegemonic curtain so no one sees the crimes they do
- It highlights the role of moral entrepreneurs like the media when defining and creating deviance
- It shows how labelling can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy
- It shows the potential impact of moral panics and how they can increase a problem
What are the limitations of interactionism? (Interactionist)
- It removes the blame for deviance off the individual; the deviant becomes a victim of labelling. A person can say they commit crime because they were labelled in that way which diminishes responsibility
- It assumes acts are not deviant until they are labelled as such but we often know acts are deviant before anyone is aware that they have taken place.
- It doesn’t look at the causes of deviance that precede the labelling process or the different acts e.g. theft is different to murder.
- It is too deterministic – it doesn’t show how some people choose 6to be deviant, also labelling won’t always lead to an SFP. People have free will and can oppose these labels
- It doesn’t explain where stereotypes come from. Police typifications must have developed from somewhere
- It has little to say about victims of crime.
- It has no real policy solutions to crime. It only explains crime an doesn’t provide solutions
- It fails to explain why some are labelled and not others
What do Marxists say about crime? (Marxism)
They see the criminal justice system as part of the superstructure in which social institutions function to maintain the economic base and serve the needs of capitalism. The law reflects ruling class ideology and protects the interests of the ruling class by maintaining social order. In particular they claim capitalism is based on greed and selfishness which makes people only look out for themselves. They also point out that crimes of the working class are the focus of attention, hiding much bigger crimes of the ruling classes
What are the features of marxist theories? (Marxism)
- Laws are a reflection of ruling class ideology - theft and trespassing
- Protection of property is at the heart of the capitalist system - RC set laws and decide what is right and wrong because they own buildings and want to focus on themselves
- Those who oppose the ruling class are criminalised - Manchester and London riots - harsher punishment
- Crime is a natural response to inequality - if people cannot afford basic necessities they may turn to utilitarian crimes to survive.
- There is one law for the rich and one for the poor. The rich have the ability to save themselves because they are in charge e.g., paying police, getting good lawyers
- Law enforcement blames the individual for crime not the system. Utilitarian crimes, blaming the individual, not looking at why they are
- Working class crime is an act of rebellion against a failing system. Riots is a natural response - safety valve
What does Gordon say about criminogenic capitalism? (Marxism)
Capitalism is based on the exploitation of the WC for profit. This is damaging to the WC and may lead to crime:
* Poverty may mean that crime is the only way to survive
* Crime may be the only way to obtain consumer goods
* Alienation and a lack of control may lead to non-utilitarian crime such as violence and vandalism
However, crime is not confined to the working class. Capitalism is ‘dog eat dog’ based on ruthless competition between capitalists. The need to stay on top and make profit may lead to white collar crime such as tax evasion and breach of health and safety laws.
Gordon (1976) argues that crime is a rational response to capitalism and therefore it is found in all social classes.
How can you criticise Gordon? (Marxism)
Crime isn’t always rational e.g., crimes of passion and manic episodes
What does Chambliss say about the state and law making? (Marxism)
Marxists see law enforcement as serving the needs of the capitalist class.
Chambliss (1975) argues that laws to protect private property are the corner stone of capitalist economy.
He also argues that ORGANISED CRIME is a major operation in Western capitalist society.
Essentially, authorities often ‘turn a blind eye’ to organised crime as high levels of corruption mean that senior figures (such as politicians or the police) are themselves involved in the criminal activity.
1) Those who operate organised crime in the USA belong to the economic and political elite.
2) The ruling class as a whole benefit from organised crime as money used from crime is then used to finance legal business.
3) Corruption of local politicians and law enforcement agencies is essential for organised crime to flourish.
4) Criminal acts that favour ruling class interests will not be punished
The ruling class also do not introduce laws that affect their interests.
What is the definition of organised crime? (Marxism)
Opportunistic - fraud, drug trafficking, gambling intertwines with gang crime. Planned and co-ordinated criminal behaviour and conduct by people working together
What does Snider say about the ruling class? (Marxism)
The capitalist state is reluctant to pass laws that regulate the activities of businesses that may impact on their profitability
What odes Gordon say about selective law enforcement? (Marxism)
Supports capitalism in 3 ways:
1) Individuals who commit crimes are defined as ‘social failures’ and are seen as responsible for their actions, therefore blame is directed to the individual and NOT on capitalist society (and its problems)
2) Imprisonment of selected members of the working class quashes opposition to the system. For example, black people in America are heavily over-represented in arrest figures.
3) Defining criminals as ‘animals’ and ‘misfits’ provides a justification for their imprisonment. This keeps them hidden from public view and so the rebellion against the capitalist system is swept under the carpet.
What is an example of where law enforcement has not protected the ruling class? (Marxism)
Madoff was a fraudster who owned the biggest ponzy scheme. He was arrested for his crimes
How can we see selective law enforcement in real life? (Marxism)
Police, crime, sentencing and courts act 2022. Introduced to give more power to the police, criminal justice and sentencing legislations. It also encompasses restrictions on ‘unacceptable’ protests. Prevents democracy. Kill the bill protests were against it.
What does Pearce say about the ideological functions of law and crime?
argues that health and safety laws which appear to benefit the WC benefit the ruling class by keeping individuals fit for work and exploitation by creating a false class consciousness through a fake caring face of capitalism.
Also because law enforcement is selective crime appears to be a working class phenomenon. This works as divide and rule as the working class blame criminals rather than capitalism.
It doesn’t explain why medical laws protect staff are there to benefit the proletariat e.g., RC have to pay compensation - criminal offence to not protect employees e.g., recycling plant in Brum 5 died can sue for compensation. No FFC because company was held accountable
What does Taylor et al say about crime? (Neo-marxism)
Takes a voluntaristic view (free will) they see crime as a choice. They argue criminals are not passive puppets but that they are trying to change society through deliberate criminal acts.
The emphasis on freedom is evidence with the fact that they want a classless society. They argue individuals should not be labelled deviant because they are different. In an ideal socialist society people would be free to live as they wish.
Taylor et al. suggested it was necessary to draw on both structural and interactionist approaches to explore crime. They argued to understand how crime is socially constructed we need to develop a ‘fully social theory of deviance.’
What are the ideas from traditional marxism that neo-marxists take into account?
- Crime must be looked at in the wider context of the act e.g., the distribution of wealth and power in society
- How does society respond to the act, do some criminals get treated more harshly than others e.g, street crime
- Does the act itself have a particular meaning, was it a form of rebellion against capitalism?
What are the ideas from interactionism that neo-marxists take into account?
- Things such as why a person commits a deviant act must be considered
- The meaning of the deviant act for the person involved. was the individual ‘kicking back’ at society through an act of vandalism?
- The effects of labelling, why does labelling lead to deviancy amplification in some cases and not others
What is a TNC? (Neo-marxism)
Transnational corporation. Companies which operate around the world
What did Ian Taylor say about the relationship between TNC’s and crime? (Neo-marxism)
He argues that T.N.C.’s have moved production to cheaper countries which has caused Britain to become de-industrialised. Unemployment, temporary and part-time working and job insecurity have increased deprivation which fuels criminal behaviour. Also those with no job prospects and little hope often descend into alcoholism and/or drug dependency. TNC’s remove jobs from local economy which fuels unemployment
What did Graham Taylor say about the relationship between TNC’s and crime? (Neo-marxism)
Graham Taylor does not focus on the rise of unemployment he argues that TNC’s are committing crimes themselves. Some of these are ‘green’ (environmental) crimes such as dumping toxic waste in developing countries. Also many firms choose to locate where laws are either softer or not enforced or where they can bribe officials. As profits from TNC contribute to the economy, from a Marxist perspective, law makers are reluctant to punish them meaning that the amount of white collar crime is significantly under reported and detected.
What are some large companies committing crime?
Shell and BP oil spills. Joe Biden wants to do oil drilling in Alaska. Bhopal disaster union carbide India understaffed plant led to gas disaster
What are the strengths of marxism and neo-marxism?
- These theories help locate crime in the context of a wider society based on class inequality.
- They also give us a greater understanding of white-collar crime because we can see WCC often occurs to cut corners within TNC’s
What are the limitations of marxism and neo-marxism?
- They over emphasise class and ignore gender and ethnicity
- They over emphasise property crime and don’t focus on serious offences such as rape and murder. They focus on crime which is done to rebel/get around capitalism. Doesn’t recognise crimes of passion/irrational non-utilitarian crime
- They have little to say about deviance. The mostly focus on crime which is done as a result of capitalism
- They fail to give solutions other than communism.
- They ignore victims. Focus on why criminals commit crime
- They fail to acknowledge, that the law protects everyone.
Why do postmodernists believe that crime is a social construction? (Postmodernism)
Crime is not universal. An act which is considered a crime is determined by a society. They will set laws and decide which acts are criminal
What does smart say about traditional approaches to crime? (Postmodernism)
All adopt a version of positivism in the following ways:
- They try to find the causes of criminality.
- They try to find ways of eradicating crime.
- They assume that scientific methods are the best way of discovering the truth about crime.
- They believe that it is possible to find an overall theory to explain crime.
Postmodernists reject these traditional approaches
What is the transgressive approach to crime as social harm? (Postmodernism)
Henry and Milovanovic (1996) adopt a transgressive approach to crime. They suggest that crime should be reconceptualised as people using power to show disrespect for and causing some sort of harm to others. Whether or not it is illegal, embracing all threats and risks to people pursuing increasingly diverse lifestyles and identities. They identify 2 forms of harm:
What are the two forms of harm in a transgressive approach to crime? (Postmodernism)
Harms of reduction and harms of repression
What are harms of reduction? (Postmodernism)
Power is used to cause the victim to experience immediate loss or injury
What are harms of repression? (Postmodernism)
Power is used to restrict future human development. This includes threatening human dignity and a lack of respect such as sexual harassment and hate crimes
What are the causes of crime? (Postmodernism)
They do not believe that crimes can be linked together and that common factors that cause them can be identified. They regard each criminal act as unique.
They do not believe that it is possible to engineer reforms to improve society (changes in the law/ the way we police etc). Effective ways of dealing with crime must be LOCAL and INDIVIDUAL.
They believe that as society is categorised by individualism so life is now uncertain and unpredictable that Meta narratives of class, gender, ethnicity no longer apply.
They argue that each crime is a one-off event therefore the social causes of crime are undiscoverable.
For example:
Low self-esteem can lead to individuals engaging in criminal activities where they harm others. This may lead to hate crimes.
How do Levin and McDevitt criticise the causes of crime? (Postmodernism)
Suggest some perpetrators of hate crime derive thrills, joys and excitement by inflicting suffering on those they perceive to be different from themselves
What does Katz say about thrill seeking? (Postmodernism)
Crime is seductive - young males get drawn into it not because of rejection but because it is thrilling
What does Lyng say about edgework? (Postmodernism)
Agrees with Katz and argues that risk taking can be seen as ’edgework’. By this he means that there is a thrill by acting in ways that are on the edge between security and danger. There are some people that are predisposed to take risks, they may get involved in criminal activity for the thrill. Explains the non-utilitarian crime such as joy riding and crimes such as fraud and explains crime amongst all social classes. It’s not clear if it is innate or part of their socialisation. There are legal ways of taking risks so why do some choose to law break.
What do postmodernists say about crime surveillance?
In the postmodernist view the fragmentation of society is reflected in a similar fragmentation of crime prevention thorough a publicly controlled and accountable centralised CJS. A growing emphasis is placed on private crime prevention and informal localised arrangements for controlling crime. There is increasing use of private control agencies like security firms who control private public places such as shopping centres.
Contemporary societies use surveillance technology to monitor and control everyone not just offenders and in turn promote conformity. Foucault (1992) pointed out that surveillance is penetrating ever more private aspects of our lives, providing round the clock surveillance technology such as CCTV and automatic number plate recognition. This monitors the movement of people, the majority of which are innocent in every sphere of life including social media, emails and use of websites. Widespread surveillance through CCTV is endemic throughout the UK, which has, according to the British Security Industry Authority approximately 5 million cameras in Britain in 2013. This is approx. 1 camera for every 13 UK citizens. This surveillance also takes the form of consumer tracking, in which large amounts of data is collected on individuals. Google for example collects vast amounts of information thorough the searches made by users. Tesco club card also tracks orders in order to advertise the lifestyle of the consumer. Foucault suggests widespread external surveillance promotes conformity as there is always the fear of being watched. This leads to people controlling their own behaviour and acting in socially acceptable ways; the big brother effect.
The postmodernists approach examines the ways in which extensive surveillance can promote conformity and reduce crime, yet it does not assess the impact on an individual’s civil liberties and human rights. Private security firms are not subject to the same controls as the police. It does not examine social inequality for example and the benefits of informal social control to those in power.
If extensive CCTV reduces crime, why do we have more crime in town centres? (Postmodernism)
More opportunity for crime e.g., pickpocketing shoplifting
Does increased surveillance decrease human rights? (Postmodernism)
Some would argue it does because people do not consent to be recorded but on the other hand it keeps people safe so is beneficial
Do people fear being watched, or has it become normalised? (Postmodernism)
With the increase of filming it is normalised but people fear it as they are more aware
Are there any benefits to increased surveillance? (Postmodernism)
Decrease in crime rates, can solve investigations e.g., finding/locating stolen things or giving family closure
What are the evaluation points of postmodernism?
- Lea (1998) believes that postmodernism has made a useful contribution to the study of the control of crime. In the postmodern world INFORMAL CONTROL MECHANISMS (ICM’s) come to dominate at the expense of the central state (police/ government). Examples of ICM’s are:
- Private security firms watch over shopping centres.
- Closed-circuit television (CCTV) follows our movements around city and town centres.
- Security firms prevent undesirables from entering some estates.
- People are treated differently in different areas and seen increasingly as customers and consumers.
- However, Lea also believes that postmodernism is regressive (avoids major questions) since it denies the possibility of being able to do anything to change unequal and unjust societies.
What are the key ideas of left realism?
Left realism claims to take crime seriously, particularly street crime, but without the moral hysteria of the right
They argue that:
1. Most crime is committed by working class people against other working-class people
2. Too often the victims of crime have been ignored- they focus on victims
3. They argue that crime is a real problem especially among the working class and fear is justified.
How do left realists explain crime?
- Left realism accepts the picture presented by official statistics that there has been a growth in working class crime.
- It argues that increasing numbers of the working class find themselves MARGINALISED in a very consumer based society where material goods are highly prized
Links to Cohen’s status frustration. WC feel marginalised so feel status frustration because they are not respected in society. They also feel strain because they want to achieve the goal of material success but are marginalised so have to find different means to do this. They commit crime to get back at society
What do Lea and Young say about marginalisation? (Left realism)
They point to a ‘growing army of young unemployed’ for whom a collective violence and the temporary control over their territory through riot is a substitute for organised politics.
- For left realism, the growing unrest and criminality of sections of working class youth has to be located in the context of wider structural processes associated with capitalism and the ending of manual jobs
Argue it has 3 concepts, relative deprivation, marginalisation and subculture
What is relative deprivation and how does it link to crime? (Left realism)
When people can’t afford material things desired in society
What is marginalisation and how does it link to crime? (Left realism)
People are pushed out of society, causes them to rebel against the state
What is subculture and how does it link to crime? (Left realism)
Anti-school and criminal subcultures
What is late modernity and the bulimic society? (Left realism)
- Young (1999, 2003) argues that late modern society we are now media saturated where everyone is included in consumer culture through constant exposure to advertising.
- The media shows us what our life should be like.
- This inclusion is accompanied for those at the bottom of the class structure with exclusion as they cannot afford to buy new goods to shape their identity.
- He argues this creates a bulimic society
How are the 2011 riots an example of bulimic society? (Left realism)
The people who take part in the riots want the expensive consumer lifestyle they see but realise they cannot afford it so use illegitimate means to get it don’t vomit it out
How would marxists explain the behaviour of a bulimic society? (Left realism)
Bourgeoisie produce images to create a consumer society and desire for goods because it benefits the capitalist society and the economy. The more people but from large businesses such as Amazon, the more profit they get.
Lewis et al: found that the desire to consume in a bulimic society was a significant factor in motivating some of the 15,000 people involved in the riots. However, the rioters were not prepared to vomit out their expectations and instead turned to crime to get it
How does Young argue that relative deprivation is intensified? (Left realism)
- Growing individualism – there is a growing focus on self-seeking, individual freedom and less community spirit and concern for others.
- The weakening of informal social control – Traditional family structures and communities are breaking down therefore there is a lack of informal support on the behaviour of those within a community
- Growing economic inequality and economic change – Globalisation has meant that the gap between the wealthiest and the poorest has grown massively.
The combination of this factors can be considered to be a toxic mix that generates crime amongst the most deprived communities.
How can we criticise the idea of relative deprivation? (Left realism)
WC have lots of community cohesion to help each other so people being relatively deprived doesn’t mean they will commit crime as much of them have a strong sense of cohesion. Left realism only focuses on utilitarian crime. Other reasons such as thrill-seeking so a bit deterministic. We are active audiences who can easily reject messages so we don’t live in a bulimic society
How do left realists understand and tackle crime?
Formal social control: police and CJS - target specific groups
Offenders: typifications
Victims: vulnerable - targeted attacks
The public - informal social control - neighbourhood watch
How might the attitudes of the public affect whether or not an act is defined as a crime? (Left realism)
Informal social control (the public) e.g., speeding
How might the attitudes of the community towards an offender influence if they commit a future offence? (Left realism)
Labelling
What are the left realist solutions to crime?
Improved community cohesion, measures to tackle deprivation e.g., Sure start, restorative justice and democratic control of policing
What is the left realist solution of improved community cohesion?
Involving the local community in controlling crime involves improving communities in the long term reducing unemployment and creating jobs improving living standards of poor families
HOWEVER: not all communities want to work with the police - subcultures
What is the left realist solution of measures to tackle deprivation?
Sure Start centres - work with parents to promote the physical, intellectual and social development of babies and young children
HOWEVER: Lack of funding to keep them open
What is the left realist solution of restorative justice?
Bringing together victim and offender and the affected community members in a facilitated dialogue to promote understanding, accountability and healing. Promotes reconciliation and reduces recidivism
HOWEVER: Might not work for serious crimes, works for petty crime, limited
What is the let realist solution of democratic control of policing?
Police should listen to local communities 90% of crime cleared up are a result of info from the public - thus ensuring public confidence in the police is important. Holding police accountable - institutional racism (BLM) and sexism
HOWEVER: Police have more power so it is difficult to control them. Marxists - police controlled by bourgeoisie. Feminists - police are majority men in patriarchal society hard to control a sexist, male-dominated police force. Wayne Couzens
What are the strengths of left realism?
- Has been praised for recognising crime is a real problem, not just some people being labelled
- Has attempted to suggest ways crime might be reduced, so is practical not just theoretical
- Does not appear as sympathetic to criminals as both traditional Marxists and Interactionists
- It recognises the importance of community solutions to crime and we need victims, offenders, the police and the public involve in reducing crime
What are the limitations of left realism?
- Some of their solutions to crime appear to be either very long term and/or expensive
- Marxists criticise them for ignoring the really serious crimes of the rich and powerful
- Interactionists maintain the crime statistics really are distorted by police attitudes, for example where they choose to police
- It relies on victim surveys which measure the extent and fear of crime yet these may be focussed on some crimes not others.
What is an overview of right realism explanations to crime?
Right realism is arguably the greatest influence on home office policy because of the practical policies that derive from it.
The origins derive from Wilson (1985) who was concerned that sociology had not solved the problem of crime.
He argues that attempts to tackle crime are pointless and the best thing to do is reduce the impact crime has on people’s lives.
Heavier punishment will deter criminals as there is a greater chance of detection not because of the heavy sanction.
What are the features of the right realism approach to crime?
Value consensus and shared morality underpin society, people are naturally selfish, community control, rational choice and opportunity and crime will always exist
What is Cornish and Clarke’s rational choice theory? (Right realism)
This is the belief that the decision to commit a crime is based on a rational calculation of the likely consequences. The perceived cost of crime Vs the rewards of the crime. They believe that crime is committed when the benefit outweighs the cost.
What is the right realist idea that value consensus and shared morality underpin society? (Right realism)
We as a society have shared norms and values which dictate how we behave and what is considered criminal or deviant
