Crime and Deviance Flashcards
1
Q
What is crime?
A
Activities and behaviour that break the laws set out by the criminal justice system.
2
Q
What is deviance?
A
Acts that go against the norms and values of society.
3
Q
How is crime and deviance a social construction through cultural variation?
A
Cultural norms and values play a significant role in shaping the understanding and definitions of crime and deviance within a particular society
Different cultures have distinct values, beliefs, and customs that shape their understanding of acceptable behavior.
E.g. Public displays of affection are illegal in Dubai because of the Islamic culture and may be punished with imprisonment.
Cultural variation plays a role in determining the severity of social sanctions imposed on individuals who engage in deviant or criminal behavior.
Deviance and crime are often defined based on these cultural expectations.
4
Q
How is crime and deviance a social construction through legal system variation?
A
Legal systems determine the range of punishments for criminal offenses.
The severity of penalties can vary significantly across different jurisdictions.
Different legal systems may prioritize rehabilitation, deterrence, or retribution, leading to variations in sentencing practices.
E.g. The sentence for a theft offence in the UK is a max of 7 years, US is max 3 years.
This variation influences the social construction of crime and deviance by shaping the consequences individuals face for engaging in certain behaviors.
5
Q
How is crime and deviance a social construction through historical variation?
A
The categorisation of certain behaviors as criminal or deviant have evolved through time because social norms and values change over time, and what was once considered deviant or criminal may no longer be seen as such.
Historical variations in crime and deviance are often influenced by social movements and activism which challenge existing norms, advocate for the redefinition of what is considered deviant or criminal behavior.
E.g. The civil rights movement was a nonviolent social movement from 1954 to 1968 in the United States to abolish legalised racial segregation and discrimination in the country.
The construction of crime and deviance is influenced by social, political, and economic factors that vary across different historical periods.
Historical contexts contribute to the understanding and construction of crime and deviance within different historical periods.
6
Q
How is crime and deviance a social construction through power dynamic variation?
A
Power dynamics contribute to the marginalization of individuals or groups labeled as deviant or criminal.
Powerful groups have the ability to define and reinforce social norms, and they may stigmatize certain behaviors or identities that challenge their authority or interests.
This stigmatization can perpetuate social inequalities and further marginalize already disadvantaged populations.
E.g Laws criminalising homosexuality were rooted in religious beliefs and moral codes that were upheld by powerful religious institutions which had significant influence in the construction of deviance and criminality. Those who deviated from the heteronormative standards were subjected to legal persecution.
Power imbalances can result in unequal treatment and differential enforcement of laws, leading to disparities in how different individuals or groups are labeled, prosecuted, and sentenced.
7
Q
How is maternal deprivation by John Bowlby a psychological reason for why people commit crimes?
A
Maternal deprivation refers to the absence or loss of a nurturing and secure mother figure during early childhood.
This can disrupt the formation of secure attachments between a child and their primary caregiver which are crucial for healthy emotional and social development.
Without this, individuals may struggle to form trusting relationships and manage emotions.
These attachment issues can contribute to a range of psychological problems, including aggression, impulsivity, and a higher likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior.
E.g In Bowlby’s study “Forty-Four Juvenile Thieves: Their Characters and Home Life.”: he found that a significant number of the young offenders had experienced early separation from their mothers or had a disrupted attachment with their primary caregivers.
These emotional regulation difficulties can make individuals more prone to engaging in criminal acts as a way to cope with or express their pent-up emotions.
8
Q
How is tripartite personality by Sigmund Freud, a psychological reason for why people commit crimes?
A
Suggests that the human psyche is composed of three distinct components:
The id - represents the primitive and instinctual part of the psyche that operates on the pleasure principle. It seeks immediate gratification of basic desires and urges, without considering societal norms or consequences. If the id dominates a person’s personality and is poorly regulated, they may be more inclined to engage in criminal acts to fulfill their immediate needs or desires.
The ego - mediates between the demands of the id, the superego, and the realities of the external world. An underdeveloped or weak ego may struggle to effectively manage conflicting desires and impulses, leading to poor decision-making and a lack of impulse control. This can potentially contribute to criminal behavior, as individuals may have difficulty weighing the long-term consequences of their actions.
The superego - acts as the conscience, enforcing societal norms and values. An excessively strict or harsh superego may lead to feelings of guilt, shame, or low self-worth. This can create internal conflicts and a desire to rebel against societal expectations, potentially manifesting in criminal behaviour.
9
Q
How is mental abnormality a psychological reason for why people commit crimes?
A
Some mental disorders can impair an individual’s ability to make sound judgments and control their impulses.
This is because they may affect cognition and decision-making - individual may be unable to consider the consequences of their actions so may inhibit impulsive or aggressive behavior
E.g. In the study “Mental Disorders and Criminal Behavior” by Fazel and Co (2011) they found that mental disorders were more common among individuals involved in criminal behavior.
When illnesses are untreated due to various factors, including limited access to mental health services their symptoms may worsen and contribute to a higher risk of engaging in criminal behavior.
The lack of impulse control can increase the likelihood of engaging in criminal acts.
10
Q
How is human evolution a biological reason for why people commit crimes?
A
Throughout human evolution, risk taking and competition have played a role in survival and reproduction.
Our ancestors needed to compete for resources, protect their territories, and ensure the survival of their offspring.
In modern society, certain individuals may exhibit heightened risk-taking tendencies, which can increase the likelihood of criminal acts with high potential rewards.
11
Q
What is Durkheim’s view on crime?
A
Durkheim theorised crime was inevitable and a normal aspect of social life as every member of society cannot be equally committed to the value consensus because are they are exposed to different influences and circumstances.
Crime has positive functions:
* Social regulation - the punishment of crime makes it clear that a particular action is unacceptable therefore, reaffirming the boundaries of acceptable behaviour.
* Social integration - strengthens social cohesion as when crimes are committed the whole community joins together in outrage.
* Social change - crime tests the boundaries of acceptable behaviour so therefore, helps the law to reflect the wishes of the population and legitimising social change.
E.g. Social change - In 1885, the Criminal Law Amendment Act made consent in homosexual acts criminal. However, the Sexual Offences Act 1967 decriminalised such behaviour between those aged 21 and over and in 2000 it was reduced to 16.
Durkheim argued that crime only became dysfunctional when there was too much as social order would break down or too little of it as there would not be sufficient capacity for positive social change.
12
Q
According to Durkheim, why do people not conform to the values of society?
A
Socialisation: The upbringing of someone determines their basic values, therefore poor upbringing may result in a rise in crime and deviance.
Social change: as society changes, fragmentation can occur which could make it difficult for people to comply with the rules and therefore crime and deviance could rise. The consequence of this is called anomie.
This is an anomie meaning the compliance of core values are weakened, as society becomes more modern and views differ there becomes a breakdown of social cohesion.
13
Q
What are the criticisms of Durkheim’s view on crime?
A
Critics argue that his focus on social integration and moral regulation neglects the individual experiences, desires, and psychological processes that may contribute to criminal behavior.
Durkheim ignores the ways in which power imbalances, social injustices, and structural factors contribute to criminal behavior and the differential treatment of individuals within the criminal justice system.
14
Q
What is Robert Merton’s view on crime?
Strain Theory
A
According to Merton’s strain theory, crime and deviant behavior are a result of the strain or tension individuals experience when they are unable to achieve socially accepted goals through legitimate means.
Merton argued that society places a strong emphasis on achieving cultural goals such as wealth, success, and status but not everyone has equal access to the means necessary to achieve these goals, such as education, employment opportunities, and social support.
Merton identified five possible ways individuals respond to the strain between their aspirations for success and the limited opportunities available to them. E.g.
* Conformity: Individuals accept both the cultural goals and the legitimate means to achieve them. They strive for success through conventional means, such as education and hard work.
* Rebellion: Individuals reject the cultural goals and the legitimate means but substitute them with alternative goals and means where they may seek to change the existing social order and create a new system.
E.g. Terence P. Thornberry’s study “The Impact of Neighborhood Disadvantage on Adolescent Development” found that individuals who grow up in disadvantaged neighborhoods, where social disorganization and limited resources are prevalent, may be more likely to reject conventional values.
it highlights the role of social structures and the unequal distribution of opportunities in shaping criminal behavior.
15
Q
What are the criticisms of Robert Merton’s view on crime?
Strain Theory
A
Critics argue that Merton’s theory places excessive emphasis on economic goals as the primary motivation for criminal behavior whereas other factors, such as personal gratification or thrill-seeking can also contribute to criminal behavior, which strain theory does not adequately address.
Merton’s theory focuses primarily on lower-class individuals and assumes that everyone aspires to the same cultural goals so the theory may not fully explain criminal behavior among other social classes who have alternative goals or aspirations.
16
Q
What is Hirschi’s view on crime?
A
Hirschi’s social control theory emphasizes the importance of social bonds and socialization in preventing criminal behavior.
He argues that individuals are naturally inclined to pursue their own self-interests and engage in deviant or criminal behavior if not adequately controlled by social bonds.
He identified four elements of social bonds that influence an individual’s propensity for criminal behavior. E.g
* Attachment: Individuals who have strong emotional bonds and attachments to social institutions are more likely to conform to societal norms and values.
* Involvement: Individuals who are heavily involved in productive activities, such as school or work have less time to engage in criminal behavior and more time to achieve personal satisfaction and rewards.
It suggests that individuals who have weak or broken social bonds are more prone to engage in criminal activities.
17
Q
What are the criticisms of Herschi’s view on crime?
A
Critics argue that social control theory does not explain why some individuals with strong social bonds still engage in criminal behavior, while others with weak bonds do not therefore, not accounting for individual variations.
His view neglects the influence of broader structural factors, such as inequality or systemic discrimination that shape opportunities and constraints for individuals, possibly leading them to engage in criminal behavior.
18
Q
How does the Status Frustration Subcultural theory by Cohen help explain non-utilitarian crimes?
A
Argues that individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds face strain and frustration resulting from their inability to meet the standards and expectations of mainstream society.
The conventional goals of success, such as educational achievement or upward mobility, may seem unattainable due to various social and economic barriers.
In response to status frustration, Cohen argues that individuals may form or join subcultures that provide an alternative set of values and norms that reject mainstream societal goals and may develop their own alternative status hierarchy based on different criteria.
Non-utilitarian crimes, such as vandalism, gang violence, or drug use, can be seen as acts that establish status within these subcultures, as they provide an alternative means of achieving recognition and respect.
E.g. Albert K. Cohen’s study “Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang” (1955) found that delinquent boys responded to their status frustration by forming criminal subcultures.
Delinquent behavior arises as a way for individuals to overcome their status frustration and gain status within their subculture.
19
Q
What are the criticisms of the Status Frustration Subcultural theory by Cohen?
A
Critics argue that Cohen’s theory focuses primarily on so it doesn’t fully explain non-utilitarian crimes among other social therefore, it fails to provide a broad and comprehensive explanation for non-utilitarian crimes.
Critics argue that Cohen’s theory presents a simplistic view of subcultures, treating them as homogeneous entities with shared values and norms. In reality, subcultures can be diverse and dynamic, with varying degrees of conformity to or deviation from societal norms.
20
Q
How does the Illegitimate Opportunity Structure Subcultural theory by Cloward and Ohlin help explain non-utilitarian crimes?
A
Expands upon the earlier work of Albert K. Cohen’s Subcultural theory.
Suggests that those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds face limited access to legitimate opportunities, such as education, employment, or social mobility.
Emphasizes that individuals learn the norms, values, and techniques of criminal behavior through socialization processes within their respective subcultures.
E.g. research conducted by Robert J. Sampson and William Julius Wilson “Crime and the Structural Constraints of Urban Poverty” (1995) found that limited economic opportunities undermined social organization, weakened community institutions, and created an environment conducive to criminal behavior.
They argue that in areas with limited legitimate opportunities, an alternative “illegitimate opportunity structure” may emerge where non-utilitarian crimes such as drug trafficking are committed to achieve success and status within the community.
21
Q
What are the criticisms of the Illegitimate Opportunity Structure Subcultural theory by Cloward and Ohlin?
A
Critics argue that it downplays the role of individual agency and personal motivations, failing to adequately account for variations in criminal behavior within different subcultural groups.
Some critics argue that Cloward and Ohlin’s theory lacks sufficient empirical evidence to support its claims meaning there have been challenges in establishing direct causal links between the illegitimate opportunity structure, subcultural dynamics, and non-utilitarian crimes.
22
Q
How does the Focal Concerns Structure Subcultural theory by Miller help explain non-utilitarian crimes?
A
Focal concerns: Miller identifies six focal concerns that he argues are prevalent in lower-class culture.
E.g Toughness, which is when Lower-class culture places a high value on the ability to withstand and respond aggressively to threats or challenges which can cause violent non-utilitarian crimes, and autonomy, which refers to the desire for independence and freedom from authority as lower-class communities, may have limited control over their lives and may lead to acts of rebellion against societal norms and rules.
Miller suggests that these focal concerns are transmitted through socialization within lower-class communities in which the values transmitted may clash with the values and expectations of the larger society causing cultural conflict.
23
Q
What are the criticisms of the Focal Concerns Structure Subcultural theory by Miller?
A
Miller’s theory tends to stereotype lower-class individuals by suggesting that they possess distinct focal concerns therefore, it overlooks the diversity within lower-class communities and fails to account for individual variations in attitudes and behaviors.
Miller’s theory does not adequately address the role of gender in shaping focal concerns and non-utilitarian crimes which is critical because the socialization processes of males and females within subcultures can influence their attitudes and behaviors.
24
Q
Explain Beckers’s labelling theory regarding crime and deviance.
A
According to labeling theory, deviance is not an inherent quality of an act or individual but is rather a product of societal reactions.
It suggests that deviance and criminal behavior are socially constructed through a process of social labeling, where individuals are labeled as deviant or criminal based on how others perceive and react to their actions.
After being labeled, individuals may internalize the deviant label and adopt it as part of their self-identity. They may associate with other labeled individuals, form subcultures, and engage in further deviant behavior as a response to societal rejection and exclusion.
emphasizes the social construction of deviance and the significance of societal reactions in shaping individuals’ behavior and social identity.
25
Explain Cicourel's theory of how labels lead to typifications.
builds upon Becker's labeling theory and focuses on how labels lead to typifications, which are generalizations or stereotypes formed by social control agents, such as police officers.
When social control agents encounter individuals who are suspected of deviant or criminal behavior, they rely on preconceived typifications to make judgments about the person's guilt or innocence.
E.g. in the Central Park jogger case it was assumed that the defendants were involved in criminal activity because of their race. This shows how appearance may determine criminality.
Cicourel argues that typifications are not objective or based on concrete evidence but are socially constructed and influenced by various factors, including their appearance, demeanor, and behavior, as well as the social context in which the interaction takes place.
These typifications can lead to biased judgments and differential treatment of individuals based on their social characteristics.
26
Explain Jock Young's view of the consequences of labelling.
Young's view builds upon labeling theory and focuses on the long-term effects of the labeling process on individuals and society as a whole.
Young suggests that labeling can lead to a "career deviance" trajectory. Once labeled, individuals may find it increasingly difficult to escape the deviant identity, as they face ongoing scrutiny and surveillance from authorities.
The label becomes a master status that overshadows other aspects of their identity, making it challenging to reintegrate into mainstream society or pursue legitimate opportunities. This can result in a lifelong involvement in deviant behavior.
E.g anyone cautioned or convicted for a sexual offence is put on the sex offenders register therefore, may find it difficult to find employment.
It emphasizes the role of labeling in amplifying deviant behavior, perpetuating social inequality, and contributing to the formation of deviant subcultures.
27
Explain Braithwaite's view of the consequences of labelling.
Developed the theory of reintegrative shaming as an alternative perspective on the consequences of labeling. He suggests that labeling can have both negative and positive effects, depending on the nature of the social response to deviant behavior.
Braithwaite acknowledges that labeling can result in stigmatization and social exclusion for those who are labeled as deviant.
The negative consequences of labeling occur when society employs a "disintegrative shaming" approach, where individuals are publicly stigmatized, humiliated, and permanently marked as deviant. This disintegrative shaming can lead to feelings of shame, loss of self-esteem, and a deepening of deviant behavior.
E.g. Adult offenders had a proven reoffending rate of 24.0% in 2021.
He also proposes a more positive approach called "reintegrative shaming." This approach involves offering opportunities for the individual to reintegrate into society after the condemning of their behaviour. Reintegrative shaming emphasizes the importance of social forgiveness, acceptance, and support. It seeks to maintain the individual's sense of worth and social bonds while addressing the harm caused by the deviant act.
Braithwaite's view of the consequences of labeling highlights the importance of societal responses to deviance and crime.
28
What are the criticisms of the use of the labelling theory as an explanation for crime and deviance?
Critics argue that labeling theory places too much emphasis on the societal reaction to deviance and overlooks the underlying causes of deviant behavior.This may be poverty, inequality, and social disorganization. By focusing solely on the process of labeling and societal reactions, the theory may fail to provide a comprehensive explanation of crime and deviance.
Labeling theory tends to portray individuals as passive recipients of labels and social reactions, neglecting the role of individual agency in shaping behavior. Critics argue that individuals have the capacity to make choices and exercise agency in their actions, independent of societal labeling.
It may be argued that crime is constructed by mental abnormality because it may impair a person’s cognition and decision-making ability to consider the consequences of actions so may inhibit deviant behaviour therefore, crime is not just a social construction.
The fact that typifications only considers the actions of individuals and not external factors such as poverty and deprivation the usefulness of the labelling theory is limited as these factors may contribute to the cause of criminal activity.
29
What is the Marxist view on crime?
Marxists claim that crime is a result of structural conditions created by capitalism. They argue that capitalism inherently produces inequality because it is a tool to pursuit individual self-interests which can lead to an unequal distribution of resources and alienation, all of which can contribute to criminal behavior.
They claim that the criminal justice system and laws are instruments used by the ruling class to maintain their power and protect their interests. They argue that laws are not neutral or objective but are shaped by the dominant class to criminalize behaviours that threaten their power.
E.g. Under the Taxation of Chargeable Gains Act 1992 House owners can sometimes avoid paying capital gains tax or higher stamp duty when selling or transferring a second home or buy-to-let property to children.
They contend that the focus on individual deviance and punishment diverts attention away from the structural causes of crime, reinforcing the status quo and preventing larger social change.
30
According to Marxists, how does crime maintain social inequality?
(Chambliss)
Chambliss argues that the legal system selectively makes laws, focusing more on certain types of offenses committed by specific groups.
Laws are applied more rigorously against the lower classes, racial and ethnic minorities, and other marginalized groups, while the actions of the powerful and elite often go unpunished.
This differential enforcement creates a perception of crime being primarily associated with disadvantaged groups, reinforcing stereotypes and justifying social control measures against them.
Chambliss claims that the selective making of laws is a result of the ruling class possessing the power and influence to shape the legal system to their advantage.
E.g. According to the Public Policy Research study, 7% of all MPs can be considered “working class”.
They can pressure lawmakers, influence policy decisions, and use their resources to avoid legal consequences. In contrast, marginalized groups lack the same access to power and resources, making them more vulnerable to criminalization and punishment.
31
According to Marxists, how does crime maintain social inequality?
(Reiman)
Reiman argues that the criminal justice system has biases that lead to selective law enforcement. These biases may include race, gender, class in the application of laws and punishments. Marginalized groups are more likely to be targeted by law enforcement, arrested, and subjected to harsher penalties compared to privileged groups.
Reiman claims that selective law enforcement is a product of broader structural inequalities in society. He argues that the criminal justice system reflects existing social and economic disparities.
E.g. Drugs and weapons offences are 2.3 times more prevalent in the most income-deprived areas of London compared to the least income-deprived in 2022.
Certain minority groups face socioeconomic disadvantages that increase their likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior. However, instead of addressing the underlying structural causes, the system focuses on punishment, reinforcing social inequality.
32
According to Marxists, how does the media's depiction of crime prevent a revolution?
Marxists argue that the media often sensationalises crime, focusing on individual acts of deviance rather than examining the underlying social and economic conditions that contribute to criminal behavior.
By highlighting crimes and presenting them as isolated incidents, the media diverts attention from the systemic inequalities and injustices inherent in capitalist societies. This distraction prevents a broader understanding of the root causes of crime and impedes efforts to challenge the existing social order.
E.g. Harper & Hogue (2016) found that in the UK sex offenses were 2% of all crimes but 20% of all media stories about crime.
Marxists claim that the media, controlled by the ruling class, tends to portray revolutionary movements as criminal or deviant. By associating radical ideas or calls for social change with criminality, the media creates a negative perception of those who challenge the status quo. This demonization serves to discredit revolutionary movements, discourage public support, and maintain the existing power structures.
33
What are the criticisms of the Marxist view on crime?
Marxist view often emphasizes crimes committed by the economically disadvantaged, while downplaying the criminal activities of the ruling class. Critics argue that this narrow focus limits the explanatory power of the Marxist perspective in understanding the full range of criminal behavior.
Critics claim that crime can also stem from various non-economic factors, such as personal conflicts, psychological disorders, or subcultural influences. By downplaying these non-economic motivations, the Marxist perspective fails to provide a comprehensive understanding of criminal behavior.
Selective law making may be beneficial for the working-class as it can be used to establish and enforce labor laws that protect the rights of workers. E.g. laws related to fair wages and reasonable working hours.
Selective law enforcement may be beneficial for the working-class as a political party such as labour may implement policies that are advantageous for them.
Media coverage of crime can raise public awareness about various criminal activities, especially those that pose a significant threat to society therefore, safety measures can be implemented.
34
What is the neo-marxist view on crime?
They claim that capitalist societies create structural inequalities, with a small ruling class controlling the means of production and gaining wealth at the expense of the working class.
This unequal distribution of resources and opportunities can lead to feelings of deprivation, alienation, and frustration, which may contribute to criminal behavior as a form of resistance or survival.
This may lead to selective law enforcement.
E.g In their book "The New Criminology: For a Social Theory of Deviance," Walton and Young argued that crime control mechanisms, such as policing and imprisonment, serve ideological functions in capitalist societies by diverting attention from underlying structural inequalities and shifting blame onto individuals and specific deviant behaviors.
This suggests that crime control measures often protect the interests of the ruling class and further entrench social inequalities.
According to this view, individuals are not solely responsible for their criminal actions but are shaped and constrained by the structural conditions in which they live.
35
What is the neo-marxist Stuart Hall's view on crime?
Hall saw crime as socially constructed and defined based on the interests and priorities of those in power within capitalist societies.
He argued that criminal behaviors themselves are not inherently criminal, but become defined and labeled as such through political processes dominated by the middle and upper classes.
Hall viewed crime statistics and impressions of crime trends as socially manipulated tools used to promote particular agendas, like increasing law and order policies that serve middle-class interests.
E.g. Hall and his co-authors analyze the ideological functions of crime control strategies in "Policing the Crisis." and argues that the construction of mugging as a moral panic allowed the state to justify the expansion of law enforcement and surveillance practices.
This aligns with the neomarxist view that crime control mechanisms serve to divert attention from systemic issues and maintain social order in a capitalist society.
36
What are the criticisms of the neo-marxist view on crime?
Neomarxist views may downplay the role of individual agency. By emphasizing structural determinism, critics argue that neomarxist perspectives may overlook the choices and motivations of individuals in engaging in criminal behavior. This critique suggests that a sole focus on structural factors can undermine the significance of personal accountability.
Some critics argue that Hall's work does not adequately incorporate intersectionality, which refers to the interconnected nature of social categories such as race, gender, class, and sexuality. They contend that a more intersectional approach is needed to understand how various forms of oppression and identity intersect and shape experiences of crime and criminalization.
37
What is the right-realist view on crime?
(personal choice)
They emphasise individual responsibility for criminal behavior. They argue that individuals choose to commit crimes based on their self-interests.
E.g. Cornish and Clarke claim that potential offenders consider several factors when making decisions about criminal behavior. These factors may include the potential rewards or benefits of the crime, the perceived risks or costs involved.
This may be because of a breakdown of traditional social institutions, such as family and religious values which leads to a lack of social control and an increase in criminal behavior.
They stress the importance of strengthening community bonds and promoting social cohesion to prevent crime.
38
What is the right-realist view on crime?
(Biological and Psychological)
They emphasise the influence of biological and psychological factors on criminal behavior. They argue that some individuals may have innate predispositions or genetic factors that contribute to criminal tendencies.
E.g. In their book "Crime and Human Nature" Wilson and Herrnstein claim that certain biological traits, such as low intelligence, impulsivity, and aggressiveness, can predispose individuals to engage in criminal activities.
This shows that these traits are inherited to some extent and can interact with environmental factors to increase the likelihood of criminal behavior.
They argue that while genetic factors may contribute to individual differences in traits, the expression of these traits is also shaped by social and environmental circumstances.
39
What are the criticisms of the right-realist view on crime?
Critics argue that right realism oversimplifies the complex nature of crime by focusing primarily on individual factors and neglecting the broader structural and societal influences. They argue that factors such as poverty, inequality, social exclusion, and systemic injustices play significant roles in shaping criminal behavior, and ignoring them limits the understanding of crime.
Critics argue that right realism places excessive emphasis on the rationality of individual offenders, assuming that all criminal behavior is the result of a rational decision-making process.
40
What is the left-realist view on crime?
Left realists claim that crime is rooted in social inequalities.
Left realism highlights the concept of relative deprivation, which suggests that individuals are more likely to engage in criminal behavior when they perceive a significant gap between their own expectations and the opportunities available to them.
This may be because social inequalities create differential access to resources, opportunities, and power. Unequal distribution of resources and limited opportunities for social mobility can contribute to frustration and feelings of injustice.
E.g. In his book "The Spirit Level: Why Equality is Better for Everyone." Richard Wilkinson claims income inequality undermines social cohesion and widens the gap between the rich and the poor. He posits that these conditions create a breeding ground for various social problems, including crime.
Left realists argue that by addressing social inequality and providing opportunities for all members of society, it is possible to create conditions that are less conducive to criminal behavior.
41
According to left realists, how does relative deprivation relate to crime?
Relative deprivation refers to the subjective experience of being disadvantaged or deprived in comparison to others in society.
Left realists recognize that certain groups within society may be more vulnerable to relative deprivation and its consequences.
E.g. Marginalized communities such as racial and ethnic minorities, and socioeconomically disadvantaged individuals often face systemic inequalities that exacerbate relative deprivation - 27% of black people are from low income households (2019/2020)
Left realists argue that when individuals perceive a significant disparity between their aspirations and their actual opportunities for social and economic advancement, it can lead to frustration and resentment.
This sense of relative deprivation can arise from observing others who enjoy more favorable circumstances or access to resources and opportunities.
42
What are the criticisms of the Left-realist view on crime?
Some critics argue that left realism oversimplifies crime by primarily focusing on socioeconomic factors. They suggest that crime is a multifaceted phenomenon influenced by a range of social, psychological, and cultural factors. By narrowing the focus to social inequality, left realism may overlook other significant contributors to crime.
Critics argue that left realism tends to focus more on crime committed by individuals and communities, while neglecting the role of state violence and structural violence. They argue that state-sanctioned violence, such as police brutality or systemic discrimination, can also contribute to crime rates and exacerbate social inequalities.
43
How can crime statistics be used as a basis for sociologists to explain crime?
Crime statistics highlight crimes committed and provide information on victims.
Sociologists can examine victimisation rates and patterns to understand how social characteristics, such as age, gender, and socioeconomic status, influence the likelihood of victimisation.
E.g. Victim surveys, such as the British Crime Survey, asks a sample of people which crimes have been committed against them - often reveals crimes that are not recorded by the police.
This analysis can help identify vulnerable populations and inform strategies to prevent victimization.
44
How can crime statistics be used to provide the public with information on crime?
Crime statistics can be presented through various channels such as government websites, reports, news outlets, and social media platforms.
E.g. Police Recorded Crime UK measure acts that are deemed to be criminal
By making this information readily accessible, the public can become aware of the types of crimes occurring in their community, the areas with higher crime rates, and the overall trends in criminal activity.
When people have access to information about crime, they are more likely to get involved in crime prevention initiatives, neighborhood watch programs, and community policing efforts.
This knowledge enables individuals to make informed decisions about their safety and take necessary precautions.
45
How can crime statistics be used to measure police efficiency?
Crime statistics can be used as one of the measures to assess police efficiency, although it is important to note that crime statistics alone may not provide a comprehensive picture of police performance.
One measure of police efficiency is the rate at which crimes are cleared or solved. Crime clearance rates indicate the percentage of reported crimes that result in arrests, charges, or other forms of resolution. Higher clearance rates suggest that police investigations are effective in identifying and apprehending suspects, which can be an indicator of police efficiency in solving crimes.
Reducing repeat offenses is an important indicator of police efficiency. By tracking crime statistics over time, specifically focusing on repeat offenses committed by the same individuals, police can assess their effectiveness in preventing recidivism. Lower rates of repeat offenses suggest that police efforts, such as patrol strategies, investigations, and community engagement, are successful in deterring individuals from engaging in further criminal activity.
e.g court and prison records provide evidence on the number of arrests that lead to convictions which can indicate how well police are building solid cases against suspects. High conviction rates suggest strong investigations and evidence collection.
46
How can crime statistics be used to discover trends in crime?
Crime statistics are a valuable tool for discovering trends in crime. By analyzing patterns and changes in crime statistics over time, researchers and law enforcement agencies can identify and understand shifts in criminal behavior.
Crime statistics can be examined over an extended period, such as several years or decades, to identify long-term trends in crime rates. By analyzing data over time, researchers can observe patterns of increase or decrease in specific types of crimes, providing insights into societal changes, shifts in criminal activity, and the effectiveness of crime prevention strategies.
Crime statistics can be examined geographically to identify spatial trends in criminal activity. By mapping crime data, researchers can identify areas with higher crime rates, crime hotspots, and areas experiencing an increase or decrease in specific types of crimes. This information can be used to target resources, implement preventive measures, and tailor law enforcement strategies to specific geographic areas.
e.g. Blumstein, A., & Wallman, J. (Eds.). (2006). The crime drop in America. Cambridge University Press - Statistical analysis primarily based on FBI Uniform Crime Report data provided evidence that a combination of factors drove the crime decline, rather than any single cause. This included increased incarceration rates, reduced drug markets, improved policing.
47
What are three reasons for unreported crime?
Embarrassment acts as a psychological barrier, preventing individuals from coming forward and reporting crimes. When people experience a crime or are victims of wrongdoing, they may feel embarrassed or ashamed about the circumstances surrounding the incident. This embarrassment can stem from various reasons, such as societal expectations where victims might worry about how their family, friends, or community will perceive them if they admit to being victimized. This fear of judgment and social stigma can lead people to keep incidents private and avoid involving law enforcement. This reluctance to report can have implications for crime statistics, as many offenses may go unreported, making it challenging for authorities to address and combat certain types of criminal activities.
Distrust in the police - Individuals may worry that reporting a crime to the police could lead to retaliation or that the police may not take their concerns seriously. If people believe that law enforcement will not effectively address the situation, they may opt not to report the crime to avoid potential negative consequences. This may be rooted in perceptions of bias or discrimination. Some individuals, particularly from marginalized or minority communities, may fear that reporting a crime will result in unfair treatment or profiling by law enforcement. This fear can dissuade them from seeking assistance or reporting incidents.
The concept of a victim not knowing they are a victim can be a significant reason for unreported crime and is closely tied to the idea of victim awareness. In some situations, individuals may experience harm or wrongdoing but may not recognize themselves as victims. Victims of ongoing abuse or mistreatment may normalize the behavior, especially if it has been a part of their lives for an extended period. They might believe that what they are experiencing is typical or that they somehow deserve the treatment, making it less likely for them to report the crime.
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What are two reasons for unrecorded crime?
The status of the offender can influence whether a crime is reported or not. The term "status of the offender" refers to various factors related to the individual responsible for the crime, such as their social, economic, or political standing. Offenders with high political or social status may exploit their position to avoid legal consequences. Victims might be discouraged from reporting crimes committed by individuals with influence, as they may perceive a lack of impartiality or fear reprisals from those in powerful positions.
The notion of "unrecorded crime" typically refers to criminal incidents that are not officially documented or reported to the police. Law enforcement agencies often have specific criteria or thresholds for initiating an investigation and recording a crime. These thresholds may require a certain level of evidence or reasonable suspicion before an incident is officially recorded. If the available evidence does not meet these thresholds, the crime may not be documented, or it may be categorized differently (e.g., as a non-criminal incident or a civil matter). If there is not enough evidence to support a viable case or identify a suspect, law enforcement agencies may choose not to record the crime. Without reasonable prospects of securing a conviction, allocating resources to investigate and document such cases may be viewed as inefficient.
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What are the views on crime statistics?
Marxists - Marxists are skeptical of official crime statistics, arguing they are shaped by the ruling class and legal system to serve their interests. Official statistics do not fully capture victimless or non-reported crimes. Marxists believe capitalism inherently produces income inequality, unemployment, and social alienation which can serve as root causes for some types of criminal behavior. High crime rates then reflect systemic issues with capitalism itself.
Feminists - Feminists argue that traditional crime statistics are gender-biased and often ignore or underreport crimes that disproportionately impact women, such as domestic/intimate partner violence, sexual assault, and harassment. Cultural definitions of what constitutes a crime impact what behaviors get reported and prosecuted. Feminists advocate expanding definitions of violence and abuse.
Functionalists - Crime statistics are viewed as objectively measuring the amount of crime occurring, which functionalists believe remains relatively stable over time. Fluctuations reflect changes in laws or reporting practices, not actual behavior. Functionalists argue statistics should focus on crimes that most disrupt social order or consensus, like violent offenses. Comparative international crime data demonstrates each society has its own stable level of criminal activity based on socialization processes and cultural norms.
50
What are the trends in ethnicity and crime?
In the UK, groups from African or Caribbean heritage have faced disproportionately high conviction rates relative to population percentages historically, although gaps have narrowed. Socioeconomic status plays a role.
According to the Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC), Black people in some areas are 29 times more likely to be stopped and searched.
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How does surveillance contribute to the trends in ethnicity and crime?
Surveillance methods, such as targeted surveillance or profiling, can disproportionately focus on specific ethnic or racial groups. This can lead to over-policing and a higher likelihood of individuals from those groups being monitored, questioned, or stopped by law enforcement. Racial profiling can perpetuate biases and stereotypes, resulting in a distorted representation of crime rates among different ethnic groups.
Surveillance can erode trust and cooperation between law enforcement agencies and ethnic communities. When specific communities feel disproportionately targeted or subject to intrusive surveillance, they may become less willing to engage with law enforcement, report crimes, or provide information. This lack of cooperation can hinder crime prevention and investigation efforts.
e.g. scarman report - brixton riots highlighted the role of resentment felt by the African Caribbean community against the police as a result of perceived harassment. He found loss of confidence and mistrust in the police and their methods of policing.
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How does the culture of resistance contribute to the trends in ethnicity and crime?
The concept of a "culture of resistance" refers to a collective response or behavior exhibited by certain ethnic communities in response to social inequalities, discrimination, or perceived injustices.
A culture of resistance can shape the socialization process within ethnic communities, influencing the development of subcultures that may involve anti-establishment attitudes, alternative value systems, or even criminal activities. These subcultures can emerge as a response to historical injustices, discrimination, or a lack of trust in the mainstream institutions, and they can contribute to distinct crime trends within those communities.
Neo-marxist Gilroy's view (1982) argued that statistics on black criminality in Britain are shaped more by racism within the criminal justice system than actual higher rates of offending. For marginalized ethnic minorities, sometimes crime and deviance represented a form of resistance and rebellion against oppressive social conditions and discrimination. Engaging in certain criminal behaviors could affirm a defiant culture identity and sense of self-worth in a context where legal opportunities were limited.
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How does the media contribute to the trends in ethnicity and crime?
The media plays a significant role in shaping public perceptions and influencing trends in ethnicity and crime.
Media representations of ethnicity and crime can perpetuate stereotypes and biases. Certain ethnic groups may be disproportionately associated with criminality or portrayed in a negative light, leading to the reinforcement of existing prejudices. These stereotypes can affect public opinion, policy decisions, and law enforcement practices, potentially contributing to disparities in crime reporting, enforcement, and sentencing.
Media outlets have the power to selectively report on crime, focusing on specific incidents or communities while neglecting others. This selective reporting can create the perception that certain ethnic communities are more prone to crime, leading to distorted crime trends. Unbalanced reporting can also lead to the underrepresentation of crime victimization within marginalized communities, further skewing public understanding.
e.g. neo-marxist Hall et al 1978 argued that newspapers and programs significantly over-reported crimes involving minorities, fueling the impression that they posed a disproportionate threat. Official criminal statistics did not actually demonstrate higher offending rates among minorities. But the media selectively reported and exaggerated incidents involving minorities.
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How does capitalism contribute to the trends in ethnicity and crime?
Capitalist systems can generate significant economic inequalities, which can disproportionately affect certain ethnic communities. Historical and ongoing racial discrimination, limited access to education, employment opportunities, and wealth accumulation can contribute to economic disparities. These inequalities can create conditions of relative deprivation, increasing the likelihood of criminal behavior as individuals or communities seek to address their economic disadvantages.
Left realists argue that relative deprivation, which refers to the perception of being unfairly disadvantaged compared to others in society, plays a significant role in crime rates among ethnic communities. When certain ethnic groups experience economic and social inequalities, limited access to resources, and disparities in opportunities, it can lead to frustration, resentment, and a greater likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior.
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What are the trends in gender and crime?
If we look at the figures from the Ministry of Justice's 2019 report on Women and the Criminal Justice System, it is clear that women still commit fewer crimes, and less dangerous crimes, than men.3
Out of approximately equal numbers of men and women in the population, 85% of the people arrested were men.
About 75% of those charged with criminal activities and 95% of prisoners were also men, which means that 5% of the total prison population are women.
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How does the chivalry thesis contribute to the trends in gender and crime?
The chivalry thesis, proposed by criminologists in the 1960s, suggests that the criminal justice system tends to be more lenient toward women compared to men.
The chivalry thesis suggests that the criminal justice system's leniency toward women may obscure the true extent of female criminality. By downplaying or underreporting female criminal behavior, it becomes challenging to accurately assess and address the underlying causes and patterns of crime among women. This lack of visibility can hinder efforts to develop targeted interventions and support systems for women involved in criminal activities.
The chivalry thesis argues that gender biases can influence decision-making at various stages of the criminal justice process. Police officers, prosecutors, judges, and juries may be influenced by traditional gender norms and stereotypes when making decisions related to arrests, charges, and sentencing. This bias can result in differential treatment, with women being perceived as less threatening or more deserving of leniency, potentially contributing to gender disparities in crime statistics.
Walklate (2000) acknowledges that chivalry likely plays some role in the trends of gender and crime, and claims that outcomes depend highly on crime type. Stereotypically "female" crimes like prostitution receive more leniency than violent offenses. Whereas male violence against female victims is prosecuted more vigorously due to chivalry ideals of protecting women.
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How does the sex-role theory contribute to the trends in gender and crime?
The sex-role theory, also known as the gender-role theory, suggests that societal expectations and norms regarding gender roles influence patterns of criminal behavior among men and women. This theory posits that gendered socialization processes, which dictate appropriate behaviors and roles for men and women, contribute to the trends in gender and crime.
According to sex-role theory, individuals are socialized from a young age to conform to gender-specific roles and behaviors. Boys are often socialized to be assertive, competitive, and tough, while girls are encouraged to be nurturing, passive, and conforming. These gendered expectations can impact criminal behavior, as men may be more likely to engage in crimes associated with aggression, violence, and dominance, while women may be socialized to adhere to societal norms that discourage criminal behavior.
E.g. Sutherland (1960) claims that ever since masculine roles and values started to be ingrained in boys during adolescence, they engaged in more rebellious and unruly behaviour than girls.
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How does the Liberation thesis contribute to the trends in gender and crime?
suggests that as women achieve greater gender equality and empowerment in society, their rates of criminal behavior will converge with those of men. This theory proposes that as women gain more opportunities, access to education, and economic independence, they will experience fewer constraints and engage in criminal behavior at levels more similar to men.
The Liberation thesis suggests that as women challenge and transcend traditional gender roles, they may also challenge societal expectations and norms regarding criminal behavior. Women who reject traditional feminine roles and expectations may be more likely to engage in criminal acts that were previously considered male-dominated, such as violent crimes or drug-related offenses. This can lead to a convergence of criminal behavior patterns between genders and changes in law enforcement practices.
This means that as society becomes more gender-equal, there may be changes in law enforcement responses to female criminal behavior. As gender stereotypes are challenged, law enforcement agencies may become lenient to criminal behavior among women. This can result in an increase in reported crimes by women and a subsequent increase in their representation in crime statistics.
E.g.Adler (1975) argues that the playing field is evening out, patriarchal controls and discrimination has lessened. Between 1950’s and 1960’s female crime rose from 1/7 to 1/6 - shows that woman have begun to adopt more male roles both legitimately and illegitimately.
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How does the Masculinity theory contribute to the trends in gender and crime?
This theory emphasizes how cultural notions of masculinity shape men's behaviors, including their involvement in criminal activities.
The Masculinity theory highlights the concept of hegemonic masculinity, which refers to the dominant form of masculinity within a given society. Traditional notions of hegemonic masculinity often emphasize aggression, dominance, risk-taking, and the suppression of emotions. According to the theory, men may engage in criminal behavior as a means of conforming to or achieving this idealized form of masculinity. Crimes such as violence, gang activity, or other forms of aggressive behavior can be seen as expressions of hegemonic masculinity.
E.g. study by Dabbs et al. (1995) on young male prison occupants found that men with high testosterone levels engaged more in violent crimes, violated prison rules, and so on. Even in women prisoners, Dabbs et al. found that elevated testosterone was related to unprovoked violence, decisions against parole, etc.
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How does the theory of invisibility of white collar and corporate crime contribute to the trends in social class and crime?
The theory of invisibility of white-collar and corporate crime suggests that crimes committed by individuals in higher social classes, particularly those involving economic and corporate misconduct, tend to receive less public attention, media coverage, and legal scrutiny compared to street crimes committed by individuals in lower social classes.
The theory of invisibility recognizes that individuals in higher social classes often have greater access to resources, including legal representation, financial influence, and connections to power structures. These resources can enable them to avoid detection, evade legal consequences, or negotiate more lenient punishments. As a result, white-collar and corporate criminals may face less accountability and be shielded from the same level of scrutiny and punishment as individuals in lower social classes, reinforcing social class disparities in crime.
This differential treatment can create the perception that white-collar and corporate crimes are less serious or less harmful, leading to a disparity in how social class influences the perception of criminal behavior.
E.g. Croall (2001) Built on Clarke's (1990) work and also emphasized under-reporting of elite crimes due to difficulties detecting complex financial offences. This supports how social class bias results in greater leniency for white collar criminals versus common offenders.
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How does status fustration by Cohen contribute to the trends in social class and crime?
Argues that individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds face strain and frustration resulting from their inability to meet the standards and expectations of mainstream society.
The conventional goals of success, such as educational achievement or upward mobility, may seem unattainable due to various social and economic barriers.
In response to status frustration, Cohen argues that individuals may form or join subcultures that provide an alternative set of values and norms that reject mainstream societal goals and may develop their own alternative status hierarchy based on different criteria.
Non-utilitarian crimes, such as vandalism, gang violence, or drug use, can be seen as acts that establish status within these subcultures, as they provide an alternative means of achieving recognition and respect.
E.g. Albert K. Cohen's study "Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang" (1955) found that delinquent boys responded to their status frustration by forming criminal subcultures.
Delinquent behavior arises as a way for individuals to overcome their status frustration and gain status within their subculture.
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How does Becker's labelling theory contribute to the trends in social class and crime?
According to labeling theory, deviance is not an inherent quality of an act or individual but is rather a product of societal reactions.
It suggests that deviance and criminal behavior are socially constructed through a process of social labeling, where individuals are labeled as deviant or criminal based on how others perceive and react to their actions.
Lower classes are more likely to be labeled as criminal because lower classes have weaker bonds to conventional society and stronger ties to marginalized groups where crime is more normalized. This increases exposure to criminal influences. Furthermore, poverty restricts access to education, jobs, resources through legitimate means. Some view crime as one of few paths to meet needs/wants.
After being labeled, individuals may internalize the deviant label and adopt it as part of their self-identity. They may associate with other labeled individuals, form subcultures, and engage in further deviant behavior as a response to societal rejection and exclusion.
emphasizes the social construction of deviance and the significance of societal reactions in shaping individuals' behavior and social identity.
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How does Merton's strain contribute to the trends in social class and crime?
According to Merton's strain theory, crime and deviant behavior are a result of the strain or tension individuals experience when they are unable to achieve socially accepted goals through legitimate means.
Merton argued that society places a strong emphasis on achieving cultural goals such as wealth, success, and status but not everyone has equal access to the means necessary to achieve these goals, such as education, employment opportunities, and social support.
Merton identified five possible ways individuals respond to the strain between their aspirations for success and the limited opportunities available to them. E.g.
* Conformity: Individuals accept both the cultural goals and the legitimate means to achieve them. They strive for success through conventional means, such as education and hard work.
* Rebellion: Individuals reject the cultural goals and the legitimate means but substitute them with alternative goals and means where they may seek to change the existing social order and create a new system.
E.g. Terence P. Thornberry's study "The Impact of Neighborhood Disadvantage on Adolescent Development" found that individuals who grow up in disadvantaged neighborhoods, where social disorganization and limited resources are prevalent, may be more likely to reject conventional values.
it highlights the role of social structures and the unequal distribution of opportunities in shaping criminal behavior.
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# Media and crime
How does the media distort crime through over representation?
Media reporting can contribute to the perpetuation of stereotypes about certain groups of people based on gender, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status.
Media coverage of crime often portrays men as the primary perpetrators, while downplaying the involvement of women. This can create a skewed perception of gender and crime, failing to acknowledge the full range of criminal behavior across genders which contributes to the underrepresentation of women in criminal narratives.
For example, sociologist Madel claims that the media distorts the reality of crime as 25% of TV is crime shows. This can lead to an overrepresentation of crimes committed by individuals from those groups, while downplaying or ignoring crimes committed by others. Such bias can further reinforce existing prejudices and distort the public's perception of crime.
When crime is consistently and extensively covered by the media, it can create the perception that crime is more prevalent than it actually is. This overexposure can contribute to a distorted view of reality, making crime appear as a normal part of everyday life. It can also create a sense of fear and anxiety, perpetuating the idea that danger is always present.
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How does the media distort crime through overexposure and exaggeration?
The media may disproportionately cover specific types of crimes that are perceived as more sensational or fear-inducing.
This can lead to an overrepresentation of those crimes in the public consciousness, even if their prevalence is relatively low compared to other types of offenses. By exaggerating certain crimes, the media can create a perception that contradicts official statistics.
For example, sociologist Surrette has developed the law of opposites, which suggests that the depiction of criminal activity in fictional media is the direct opposite of official statistics. For instance, property crime, which is the most prevalent criminal activity in statistics, is not given much attention in fictional media, presumably because it is not considered as exciting as other crimes.
When crime is consistently and extensively covered by the media, it can create the perception that crime is more prevalent than it actually is. This overexposure can contribute to a distorted view of reality, making crime appear as a normal part of everyday life. It can also create a sense of fear and anxiety, perpetuating the idea that danger is always present.
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How does the media distort crime through the portrayal of police?
Media coverage of crime and police encounters can be influenced by biases and stereotypes, reflecting certain narratives that may not accurately reflect the general experiences within law enforcement.
The portrayal of certain ethnic groups as more prone to criminal behavior or the depiction of police officers using excessive force can reinforce negative stereotypes and contribute to a distorted understanding of crime trends and the complexities of policing.
E.g. Scotland Yard has admitted overusing its power to strip-search children after four of its officers were told they would face disciplinary proceedings over allegations that their search of a 15-year-old black schoolgirl known as Child Q was inappropriate and amounted to discrimination owing to her race and sex.
Media outlets are driven by ratings, viewership, and commercial interests. This can lead to the prioritization of crime stories that generate higher ratings or attract more viewership, this potentially could be stories involving police misconduct therefore, favoring dramatic narratives over more comprehensive reporting.
The pursuit of higher ratings can contribute to the distortion of crime coverage, focusing on the most salacious or attention-grabbing aspects rather than providing a balanced and accurate portrayal of crime and law enforcement.
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How do news values impact crime through proximity?
Proximity is a news value that gives preference to stories that occur close to the audience.
Proximity is particularly influential in local news coverage. Local crime stories, such as those happening within a city or region, are often prioritized because they directly affect the audience and their immediate community.
Media outlets recognize that local news has a higher relevance and connection to their audience, which can lead to increased engagement and interest.
Local crimes often receive more coverage compared to crimes happening in distant locations. This emphasis on local crime can create the perception that crime is more prevalent in the immediate vicinity, even if official statistics suggest otherwise.
It can contribute to a sense of fear and vulnerability within local communities.
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How do news values impact crime through conflict?
Conflict is a news value that involves highlighting clashes or confrontations. In the context of crime, this can manifest in reporting on criminal activities that involve conflicts between individuals, groups, or institutions.
Conflict-driven crime reporting often creates strong emotional responses from the audience. By highlighting the confrontational aspects and human drama associated with crime, media outlets aim to create emotional connections and evoke empathy or outrage.
Emotional storytelling can generate higher levels of engagement and foster a sense of urgency or concern among the audience.
Such coverage tends to focus on the dramatic aspects of crime, emphasizing the confrontational nature of the incidents. While conflict-focused reporting may attract attention, it can oversimplify complex issues and impact public understanding of crime dynamics.
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How do news values impact crime through prominence?
News values often prioritize stories involving prominent individuals or high-profile cases.
Prominence often influences the hierarchy of news values. When a crime involves a well-known person, it may overshadow other crime stories that are equally or more significant in terms of their impact or severity.
The media's focus on prominent individuals can sometimes result in an imbalance in crime reporting, with less attention given to crimes affecting everyday people.
Crimes involving celebrities, politicians, or public figures tend to receive more coverage due to their perceived newsworthiness. This emphasis on prominent individuals can distort the public's perception of crime by overrepresenting crimes involving the elite or well-known individuals, while downplaying crimes affecting the general population.
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# prevention of crime
According to Left-realists, how do community projects prevent crime?
According to Left-realists, community projects can play a significant role in preventing crime by addressing the root causes of criminal behavior and creating a supportive environment for individuals.
Community projects aim to improve social conditions and strengthen community ties, consequently reducing crime rates. These projects often focus on areas such as education, employment, and social support, targeting individuals who may be at risk of engaging in criminal activities.
For instance, community projects may establish after-school programs that provide educational support and extracurricular activities for children and teenagers. These programs offer a safe and supervised environment where young individuals can engage in productive and positive activities, reducing their exposure to potential criminal influences.
E.g. Perry Preschool Project 1962 provided high-quality pre-school education to three- and four-year-old African-American children living in poverty and assessed to be at high risk of school failure. This led to children outperforming the control group academically and lower rates of juvenile arrests (2.3 compared to 4.6).
This shows how promoting education and providing opportunities for personal development, these projects empower individuals, enhance their self-esteem, and reduce the likelihood of them resorting to criminal behavior.
Overall, community projects aim to prevent crime by providing individuals with opportunities, support, and a sense of belonging within their communities.
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According to Left-realists, how do intervention programmes prevent crime?
Left realists argue that crime is a result of social inequality, deprivation, and the breakdown of social bonds within communities. They believe that intervention programs can effectively reduce crime rates by tackling these root causes.
Left realists highlight the significance of community involvement in crime prevention. Intervention programs often focus on fostering community engagement, empowerment, and collective action. This can involve initiatives such as community policing, neighborhood watch programs, and community organizing efforts.
By strengthening social bonds, fostering a sense of belonging, and empowering communities, intervention programs aim to create environments that are less conducive to crime.
They emphasize the importance of early intervention in preventing crime, particularly among young people. Intervention programs may target at-risk youth through mentoring programs, after-school activities, and educational support.
By providing positive alternatives, opportunities for personal development, and guidance, these programs aim to divert young individuals from engaging in criminal behavior and help them build positive futures.
E.g. Troubled families programme 2012-15 took holistic approach, recognizing that families facing multiple challenges required comprehensive support. It aimed to address the underlying causes of their difficulties rather than just treating the individual symptoms. This involved working across various domains, such as education, employment, health, and social care - had some positive impacts, including increased school attendance, reduced offending, and improved employment outcomes. However, it also highlighted the challenges of accurately measuring and attributing these outcomes solely to the programme.
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How does policing prevent crime through community partnership?
Policing plays a crucial role in preventing crime through community partnerships by fostering collaborative relationships between law enforcement agencies and the communities they serve.
Building trust between law enforcement and the community is essential for effective crime prevention. Police officers work to establish positive relationships with community members through regular interactions, open communication channels, and transparency. This helps create an environment where community members feel comfortable reporting crimes, sharing information, and cooperating with the police.
Effective crime prevention relies on timely and accurate information. Community partnerships allow for the exchange of information between police and community members. This includes encouraging residents to report suspicious activities, providing tips, and sharing knowledge about local crime patterns. By leveraging community intelligence, police can gather valuable information that helps identify potential threats, prevent crimes, and apprehend offenders.
E.g. Kinsey, Lea and Young (1986) argue that the police need to spend less time policing and controlling crime, and spend more time just investigating crime.
Policing through community partnerships prevents crime as working together identifies and addresses local crime concerns which will help create safer neighborhoods.
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According to right realists, explain one way designing out prevents crime.
Right realists argue that by altering the physical environment and implementing specific design strategies, it is possible to reduce criminal opportunities and deter potential offenders.
Designing out crime involves making changes to the built environment in order to create spaces that are less conducive to criminal activities. This approach focuses on increasing the risk and decreasing the rewards associated with committing crimes, thereby discouraging potential offenders.
One example of designing out crime is the implementation of improved street lighting in public areas. Well-lit streets, parks, and other public spaces contribute to enhancing visibility, making it more difficult for criminals to operate unnoticed. Adequate lighting not only increases the risks for offenders but also creates a sense of safety and reassurance for residents and passersby, encouraging greater use of public spaces.
E.g, Felson's 1998 concept of "hostile architecture" argued that architectural designs are increasingly incorporating defensive elements that are intentionally hostile or unfriendly to potential offenders or undesirable groups. These "defensive designs" try to shape public behavior through physical and structural changes rather than through rules or laws like benches with armrests down the middle to prevent sleeping.
Designing out crime through situational crime prevention strategies limit the opportunities for criminal activities because it creates an environment that is less conducive to criminal behavior.
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According to right realists, explain one way target hardening prevents crime.
Target hardening refers to implementing measures to make potential targets of crime more difficult to access or attack, thereby deterring potential offenders.
Target hardening strategies focus on increasing the effort and reducing the opportunities for criminals to successfully commit crimes. By making potential targets less vulnerable and more secure, the aim is to discourage offenders and make it less likely for them to choose these targets.
The presence of security measures can discourage criminals from attempting to break in, steal, or engage in other illegal activities due to the higher likelihood of detection and apprehension.
Reinforcing physical barriers also increases the time and effort required to breach a target, making it less attractive to potential offenders who seek quick and easy opportunities.
E.g. Clarke & Cornish (1985) - A convenience store owner, influenced by right realist ideas, decides to implement target hardening measures to prevent theft. The owner installs security cameras, hires security personnel, and uses cash registers with time-delayed opening mechanisms. These measures increase the effort required for potential thieves to successfully carry out a theft.
Target hardening aims to prevent crime by making potential targets less vulnerable and more secure.
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Give some statistics on surveillance.
1:11 - the ratio of cameras to people in the UK
71% - Percentage of Police forces in the UK that use Body Cameras
70 the average number of time a day in britain will be caught on a CCTV camera
8,787,892 - the estimated number of CCTV cameras in the UK
40 million - the number of car number plates that are scanned by ANPR a day
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Explain how physical surveillance prevents crime.
The presence of visible surveillance measures, such as security cameras, can act as a deterrent to potential criminals. The knowledge that their actions may be recorded or witnessed by others can discourage individuals from engaging in illegal activities.
The perception of being watched and the fear of being identified and apprehended can significantly reduce the likelihood of criminal behavior.
E.g. Lyon cautions against the idea that increased surveillance automatically leads to enhanced security. He argues that the perception of being constantly monitored can create a false sense of security among the public, potentially diverting attention and resources away from other effective crime prevention strategies. Lyon highlights the importance of a comprehensive approach that includes social, economic, and educational measures alongside surveillance to address the root causes of crime.
Physical surveillance can be strategically deployed in areas with higher crime rates or specific vulnerabilities. By focusing surveillance efforts on known hotspots or areas prone to criminal activities, law enforcement agencies can allocate resources effectively and increase the chances of preventing crimes before they occur.
This targeted deployment can also help identify patterns and trends, enabling proactive crime prevention strategies.
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What are the core agencies of the Criminal Justice System?
Police:
Investigate crimes and gather evidence
Make arrests and charge suspects
Ensure public order and safety
Crown Prosecution Service (CPS):
Review cases investigated by the police
Decide if charges should be brought
Prepare cases and present them in court
The Courts:
Hear cases brought by the CPS
Determine innocence or guilt of defendants
Pass sentences if defendants are found guilty
National Offender Management Service (NOMS):
Manage adult and youth offenders pre-and post-trial
Operate prisons and probation services
Facilitate rehabilitation of offenders
Youth Justice Board (YJB):
Oversee youth justice system in England/Wales
Commission services for prevention of youth crime
Supervise youth rehabilitation programs
Monitor welfare of children in secure settings
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What are the views on the Criminal Justice System?
Functionalists - Would see the CJS as reflective of value consensus within society, the dominant ideas about what is considered to be right and wrong. They argue that the ideas of crime change over time and also what is considered to be illegal and deviant at any given point.
Marxists - Argue that the CJS reflects that values and aspirations of the ruling class who dominate the criminal justice system. Marxists point out that the majority of crimes are committed by the working-class, while ruling - class crimes go undetected and unpoliced. Chambliss (1989) explains that the police are more likely to judge a working-class person as a criminal than a middle-class person and that middle-class people are much more likely to be let off for minor crimes.
Feminists - The chivalry thesis can be applied to the CJS - women often being less likely to receive prison sentences for manslaughter than men, for example, as well as being less likely to be stopped and searched. However, there is also evidence to suggest that women are treated more harshly than men when they are accused of committing more serious crimes, for example, they are judged to be not just criminals but deviant from their roles as women. Walklate (1998) argues that rape trails for example, put female victims on trial by judging them for any behaviour which strays from being conforming, while men's sexual exploits are typically celebrated and seen as acceptable.
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What is the role of the Criminal Justice System?
The criminal justice system plays a crucial role in societies by maintaining social order, preventing and deterring crime, and administering justice.
The law enforcement agencies are responsible for enforcing laws, maintaining public safety, and preventing crime. They investigate criminal activities, apprehend suspects, and gather evidence.
The judiciary is the branch of the criminal justice system responsible for interpreting and applying the law. It consists of courts and judges who oversee legal proceedings and make decisions based on the evidence and arguments presented.
The corrections system manage individuals who have been convicted of crimes. This includes prisons, jails, probation, parole, and rehabilitation programs.
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What is the punishment system?
The punishment system in the UK is designed to enforce the rule of law, maintain social order, and provide a just response to criminal behavior.
Deterrence: The punishment system aims to deter individuals from engaging in criminal behavior by imposing penalties that are meant to discourage potential offenders.
Retribution: The punishment system seeks to ensure that offenders face consequences proportional to the severity of their offenses and that they are held accountable for their actions.
Rehabilitation: Programs and interventions are aimed at addressing these underlying factors, providing offenders with opportunities for personal growth, skill development, and behavior change to reduce the likelihood of reoffending.
Public Protection: The punishment system in the UK also seeks to protect the public from individuals who pose a risk of harm. This includes the use of imprisonment for serious offenders who may pose a significant threat to society.
Restorative Justice: The UK's punishment system focuses on repairing the harm caused by the offense and facilitating the involvement of victims, offenders, and the community in the resolution process. Restorative justice aims to provide a sense of closure, accountability, and reconciliation for all parties involved.
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Why can it be argued that the Uk punishment system is effective?
One reason why the punishment system in the UK is considered effective is its emphasis on fairness in sentencing as punishments are tailored to fit the crime and the circumstances of the offender. This approach ensures that the punishment is proportionate with the seriousness of the offense committed. Judges and magistrates take into account a range of factors such as the nature and gravity of the crime, the offender's culpability, any mitigating or aggravating factors, and the potential impact on the victim and the community. By considering these factors, the UK's punishment system aims to achieve a balance between retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and the protection of society. This approach recognises that not all offenders are the same and that a one-size-fits-all approach to punishment may not be effective or fair.
Another reason why the punishment system in the UK is effective is the presence of independent judiciary and the rule of law. In the UK, the judiciary operates independently from the legislature which ensures a fair and impartial administration of punishment. The rule of law is a fundamental principle that governs the UK's legal system, guaranteeing equality before the law, due process, and protection of individual rights. This means that everyone, regardless of their status or background, is subject to the same laws and is entitled to a fair trial. The independent judiciary upholds the rule of law by ensuring that punishments are administered in accordance with the law. This independence and adherence to the rule of law contribute to the effectiveness of the punishment system in the UK because it ensures that punishments are based on legal principles and precedents, providing consistency and predictability in sentencing outcomes. This fosters public trust and confidence in the punishment system.
The UK's punishment system places a strong emphasis on rehabilitation and offers various programs and interventions aimed at addressing the root causes of criminality. Offenders may have access to educational programs, vocational training, counselling, and substance abuse treatment while serving their sentences. By providing these resources, the UK aims to equip offenders with the necessary skills, knowledge, and support to break the cycle of criminal behaviour. This approach recognises that many individuals enter the criminal justice system due to factors such as socio-economic disadvantages, lack of education, mental health issues, or substance abuse problems. Addressing these underlying issues can significantly reduce the likelihood of re-offending.
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Why can it be argued that the Uk punishment system is not effective?
One reason why the punishment system in the UK may be perceived as not fully effective is the issue of overcrowding in prisons. Over the years, the UK has faced challenges in managing the growing prison population, resulting in overcrowded prisons and stretched resources. Overcrowding can have several negative consequences for the effectiveness of the punishment system. Firstly, it can limit the ability of prisons to provide adequate supervision, support, and rehabilitation programs to individual inmates. With limited resources and staff, it becomes more challenging to address the specific needs and circumstances of each offender. Additionally, overcrowding can result in shorter prison sentences or early releases due to limited capacity, which may raise concerns about the proportionality and adequacy of punishments. This can undermine public confidence in the punishment system and its ability to deter criminal behavior effectively.
Another reason why the punishment system in the UK may be perceived as ineffective is the high rate of reoffending, among individuals who have served their sentences. Despite efforts to prioritize rehabilitation and reintegration, a significant proportion of offenders continue to engage in criminal behavior after their release from prison. There are various factors that contribute to the high recidivism rates such as the limited support and resources available for offenders transitioning back into society. This includes difficulties in finding stable housing, securing employment, accessing education and training opportunities, and receiving ongoing support for mental health or substance abuse issues.Without adequate support and opportunities for successful reintegration, individuals may find it challenging to break free from the cycle of criminal behavior. The lack of comprehensive post-release support can increase the likelihood of relapse into criminal activities, leading to reoffending.
Another reason why the punishment system in the UK may be considered ineffective is the over-reliance on imprisonment as a primary form of punishment. While incarceration serves as a crucial tool for public safety and punishment, an excessive reliance on imprisonment can have negative consequences. One of the key issues is the potential for prisons to become breeding grounds for further criminal behavior. The prison environment, with its inherent challenges such as violence, drug use, and lack of access to rehabilitative programs, can contribute to a culture that perpetuates criminality rather than addressing it. This can result in a cycle of reoffending, where individuals who have served their sentences return to society without the necessary support or skills to reintegrate successfully.
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How has globalisation contributed to the trends in cyber crime?
Globalization has led to a massive increase in connectivity through the internet and digital technologies. This interconnectedness has created new avenues for cybercriminals to exploit vulnerabilities in computer systems, networks, and individuals' online activities.
Criminals can launch attacks from one country, target victims in another, and route their activities through multiple jurisdictions, making it challenging for law enforcement agencies to track and apprehend them.
The ease of communication and access to a global audience has facilitated cybercriminal activities such as hacking, identity theft, phishing, and malware distribution.
E.g. Get rich quick investment scams, especially in Covid 19 – saw the emergence of fake profiles on Instagram and other sites where users claim to be making LOTS of money trading stocks, crypto and property, if you invest with them.
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How has globalisatoin contributed to the trends in financial crimes?
Globalization has led to increased cross-border financial transactions, including international trade, foreign investments, and global banking activities. This is to provide access to cheaper imports for consumers and households who now benefit from lower prices and increased choice.
These transactions create opportunities for financial crimes such as money laundering, fraud, and illicit capital flows. Criminals can exploit the complexities of global financial systems and regulatory differences between countries to conceal the origins of funds, evade taxes, or engage in other illicit activities.
Globalization has created regulatory challenges in addressing financial crimes. Differences in legal frameworks, regulatory standards, and enforcement mechanisms across jurisdictions make it difficult to effectively combat financial crimes on a global scale. Criminals can take advantage of regulatory arbitrage, moving funds or conducting activities in jurisdictions with weaker regulations or enforcement measures.
E.g. The Danske Bank money laundering scandal (2007-2019) where From 2007-2015, around €200 billion in suspicious transactions were laundered through Danske Bank's Estonian branch. This demonstrated how global financial integration amplified opportunities for large-scale criminal schemes exploiting jurisdictional gaps.
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How has globalisation contributed to the trends in trafficking crimes?
Globalization has led to increased mobility and transportation networks, making it easier for traffickers to move people, drugs, and illicit goods across borders. Improved transportation infrastructure, including air travel, maritime routes, and road networks, has provided traffickers with greater access to distant destinations and expanded their reach. The ease of travel and movement has facilitated the recruitment, transportation, and exploitation of victims in human trafficking and the smuggling of drugs and contraband.
Globalization has facilitated the formation and expansion of transnational criminal networks involved in trafficking crimes. These networks leverage cross-border connections, cultural ties, and corruption to establish routes, recruitment channels, and safe houses. They can exploit differences in legal systems, enforcement capacities, and regulatory frameworks between countries to evade detection and prosecution. Globalization has enabled these criminal networks to operate across multiple jurisdictions, making it challenging for law enforcement agencies to effectively combat their activities.
E.g. The Golden Venture shipwreck (1993) with 286 Chinese migrants aboard. It was one of the largest human smuggling operations uncovered in the US at the time. This event starkly highlighted how sophisticated organized crime groups used expanding global mobility and immigration to engage in systematic exploitation across borders on an enormous scale.
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How has globalisation reduced the levels of crime?
Globalization has facilitated economic growth and development in many parts of the world. Increased trade, foreign investments, and technological advancements have created job opportunities, improved living standards, and reduced poverty in certain regions. Research suggests that higher levels of economic development are associated with lower crime rates. As individuals have better access to education, employment, and resources, they may be less likely to engage in criminal activities.
Globalization has spurred technological advancements in security measures and law enforcement tools. Increased investments in surveillance systems, forensic technologies, data analytics, and digital communication have enhanced the capabilities of law enforcement agencies. These advancements have improved the ability to detect and prevent crime, investigate and prosecute offenders, and enhance overall public safety.
Law enforcement agencies around the world have established collaborative mechanisms, information sharing networks, and joint operations to combat organized crime, drug trafficking, terrorism, and other illicit activities. These efforts have led to the disruption of criminal networks, the apprehension of criminals, and the prevention of criminal acts, contributing to a reduction in crime levels.
Globalization has facilitated the development of international norms, treaties, and agreements aimed at combating various crimes. Treaties such as the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, the United Nations Convention against Corruption, and the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism have fostered global cooperation and efforts to address crime. These frameworks promote the harmonization of legal standards, facilitate extradition and legal assistance, and encourage countries to strengthen their legal frameworks and enforcement measures.
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Define green crime.
The term ‘green crime’ was first coined by MJ Lynch (1990), who defined it as: "harms caused to living beings through the creation of environmental hazards existing at local and global levels"
White (2006) defined green crime as any human activity that harms the environment, thus taking the transgressive nature of green crime a step further.
Beck (1992) argues that we have entered a 'global risk society' wherein green crime is not limited to a particular country but is a global issue.
Primary Green Crime - Direct result of the destruction and degradation of the planet's resources: Crimes of air pollution, Crimes of deforestation, Crimes of species decline and animal rights, Crimes of water pollution.
Secondary Green Crime - Crimes that are a result of flouting existing laws and regulations: State violence against oppositional groups’, ‘hazardous waste and organised crime’
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What is the scope and impact of green crimes?
Recent scientific research suggests that our planet Earth has entered an era of ‘global ecosystem collapse’ caused by human activities such as pollution and excessive consumption (Sato & Lindenmayer, 2018).
The last decade has seen a rise in environmental crimes by an annual growth rate of at least 5–7%
Weir Waste Services case in Bordesley Green where a Birmingham company was fined £46,000 for being in breach of their environmental permit: piling up of rubbish. This case is a clear example of how important environmental damage is. Green crime is a serious problem not just because of legal duties being breached but because it can damage the environment and those who are a part of it.
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Definitions of State Crime: Chambliss and domestic law
Chambliss defined state crime as "illegal or deviant activities perpetrated by, or with the complicity of, state agencies, or that are linked to policy initiatives of state agencies." This can range from human rights abuses, such as torture, to state-corporate crimes, such as corruption.
Domestic legal systems typically define and criminalize specific acts that can be considered state crimes, such as bribery, human rights violations. These acts are often addressed through relevant statutes and legal provisions within the jurisdiction's criminal law.
Chambliss emphasized that state crimes often involve the exercise of state power, the violation of human rights, and the protection of elite interests. He argued that state crimes are distinct from individual or street crimes because they are carried out by those with authority, often operate with legal immunity or limited accountability
E.g. The UK parliamentary expenses scandal was a major political scandal that emerged in 2009, concerning expenses claims made by members of the British Parliament. The disclosure of widespread misuse of allowances and expenses permitted to members of Parliament (MPs) aroused widespread anger among the UK public and resulted in a large number of resignations.
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What is Zemiology and how does it define State Crime?
(Michalowski / Hillyard)
Zemiology focuses on the social, economic, and political causes and consequences of criminal and harmful behaviors. It seeks to examine crime and harm within a broader societal context, emphasizing power relations, social inequalities, and the role of institutions in shaping criminal behavior.
According to Michalowski and Hillyard, state crime is not limited to individual acts committed by state officials or agencies but is rather a result of the structural and systemic dynamics of the state itself. They argue that state crime should be understood as "the organizational structures and processes of the state itself as the centre of crime and harm."
E.g. Political crimes through censorship as shown by the Nazis' requirements of using art as propaganda. Art was only allowed to be used as a political instrument to control people and failure to act in accordance with the censors was punishable by law, even fatal.
Therefore, state crime is not solely about the actions of individual state members but also includesthe harmful consequences of state policies, actions, and institutions.
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How does Rothe and Mullins define state crime in terms of International Law?
In the realm of international law, state crime refers to criminal acts committed by or on behalf of a state that violate international legal norms, including human rights law, international humanitarian law, and other international agreements. These crimes can include genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity.
International law provides a framework for addressing state crimes and holding individuals responsible for their actions. It establishes international courts and tribunals, such as the International Criminal Court (ICC) which investigates and, where warranted, tries individuals charged with the gravest crimes of concern to the international community.
The definition of state crime provided by Rothe and Mullins emphasizes the importance of both domestic and international laws. According to their definition, a state crime occurs when an action is taken by or on behalf of the state that violates these laws. Rothe and Mullins' definition also highlights the complicity of the state in these crimes, meaning that it is not just the actions of individual state officials that constitute state crime, but the actions taken by or on behalf of the state. This includes actions taken by state agencies, such as the military or police, as well as actions taken by government officials.
The example of the Gulf War and the falsified reports of weapons of mass destruction highlights how state crime can occur on an international level. In this case, the actions of the US government and potentially the UK government violated both international and domestic laws, as they were based on false information and resulted in the loss of numerous lives and significant harm to the affected regions.
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Types of state crimes: Political crimes
Political crimes refer to offenses committed with a political motive or for political purposes.
Political crimes include corruption and censorship. Corruption is the dishonest or fraudulent conduct by someone in power, for example, a political figure electing themselves into power without democratic means (no election, or rigged election).
Censorship is the deliberate suppression of any form of information. For example, the removal of a film scene by labelling it as too political, when it is merely portraying the reality of the political situation of a country.
Another form of political state crime is assassination, which refers to the premeditated act of killing someone, suddenly and secretly. State-sponsored assassination or 'targeted killing' of terrorists has increasingly become a debated topic.
