Crime

Question 1

-what are the characteristics of crime?

Answer 1

-The definition of crime is an act (or lack of acting) that violates law and resource in punishment by the state
-criminal behaviours are social construct, for example, it is society who determines what is right and wrong, an example of this is homosexuality used to be a crime in England, however, them became legalised
-top shelf crimes: include sex offences, murder, organised crime, terrorism, etc.
-those who fall under the category of murder can fall into two different types:
-Disorganised a social offender— these types of murderers are usually an individual with a below average IQ, socially inadequate, they are likely to be unskilled workers and they are likely to have received harsh or inconsistent discipline in childhood
-The second type of murderer would be an organised non-social offender
-these types of murderer usually have an above average IQ, they are socially adequate and usually live with someone, as well as this, they usually have the ability to control their mood.
-another type of criminal would be a career criminal, these are individuals who make a living of committing crimes. The characteristics of a career, criminal are:
-rationalisation— career criminals, rationalise own beliefs, by diverting the blame onto others ,for example “ if she didn’t want her purse being stolen, she would’ve locked the car”
-Entitlement— they are usually self-centred and oblivious to others needs, they believe they can commit any act as it is all about them
-Family dysfunction — it is a common trait for a career criminal to have a lack of family support on emotion and finance, they often do not have any emotional or psychological stability, meaning they are predisposed to any antisocial behaviour

Question 2

Explain the inherited criminality explanation of criminal behaviour (10 mark)
-bio

Answer 2

-The inherited criminality explanation, of crimes, believes that the characteristics of criminals are genetically passed down through families, and looks into the concordance rate of criminal characteristics, between two related people.
-as a part of the genetic explanation of crime, family studies were conducted.
For example, Osborne and West, compared the sons of criminal and non-criminal fathers. They found that 13% of sons of the non-criminal fathers had criminal convictions compared with 40% of the sons of criminal farmers. This shows that those who had criminal fathers are more than three times as likely to commit a crime than those without a criminal father , showing how a genetic link could pass down.
-also as a part of the inherited criminality explanation, twin studies were conducted. For example, rosanoff, studied, 97 male twin pairs. He found the following: 22 out of 33 (67%) mz twins Had concordance rates for crimes and found that 3 out of 23 (13%) DZ twins had concordance rates for crime.
This shows that MZ twins, who share 100% genetic material or more likely to have a genetic concordance rate to crime, shown how genetics may factor in criminal characteristics. However, as they share 100% of DNA, if criminal characteristics were solely down to genes, then you would expect 100% concordance rate.
-another part of the inherited criminality explanation would be candidate genes. These are genes that have been identified that could play a role within certain characteristics.
-for example, the MAOA gene, this is a genetic variant which is linked with aggressive behaviour. People with gene have low levels of monoamine oxidase A, which then disrupts the normal breakdown of neurotransmitters. Lots of these neurotransmitters have been linked to an increase in aggressive and antisocial behaviour.
-from this, Bruner conducted a study where he analysed the DNA of 28 members of a Dutch family with a history of impulsive and violent crime.
-it was found that the men shared a mutation in the MAOA gene.
-therefore showing the link between low levels of MAOA and criminal characteristics.

Question 3

-evaluate the strengths of the inherited criminality explanation of crime
Bio

Answer 3

-one strength — supporting evidence
-for example, ransoff studied, 97 male twin pairs. He found the following: 22 out of 33 (67%) mz twins Had concordance rates for crimes and found that 3 out of 23 (13%) DZ twins had concordance rates for crime.
C- however, as twins are raised in the same environment, especially MZ twins, the concordance rates may actually be down to nurture and not nature.
-therefore, although there is evidence to support the inherited criminality explanation, it may be unreliable as criminal behaviour may not be down to genes, but in fact, the environment raised in.

-strength—deterministic
-For if criminal behaviour is determined by an MAOA gene, leading to lower levels of MAOA, then we can predict that people with lower levels of this, are more likely to have aggressive and antisocial behaviour, So prevention can be put in place earlier on. This shows how being deterministic helps to predict the onset of criminal behaviour.
-however, as the explanation is deterministic, it can lead to people who have criminal relatives, feeling powerless, as they may feel like they can’t prevent their own criminal behaviour. (self fulfilling prophecy).
L-therefore, although inherited genes make it easy to predict and prevent criminal behaviour. It also takes the blame away from criminals and leads to self fulfilling prophecy.

Question 4

-evaluate the weaknesses of the inherited criminality explanation of crime
-bio

Answer 4

One weakness— only focuses on nature and ignores nurture
-for example, the inherited criminality explanation only focuses on concordance rates of criminal behaviour passed through inherited genes. Showing how it only explains the genetic influence of criminal behaviour traits, which is a nature explanation.
-however, there may be other explanations for criminal characteristics which come from a nurtured influence. For example, criminal behaviour, maybe down to a predisposition of being exposed to criminal behaviour and childhood.
-therefore, this explanation may not be reliable as ignores all factors leading to criminal behaviour, such as nurture. this can lead to the explanation to be seen as incomplete.

Question 5

Explain the role of the amygdala explanation of crime (5 mark)
-bio

Answer 5

-The amygdala is a part of the limbic system, which is responsible for fear and emotion processing as well as moral development. The amygdala has strong connections with the prefrontal context, hippocampus, thalamus, etc.
-The amygdala explanation of crime suggests that reduced activity in the amygdala, can lead to heightened symptoms of psychopathy (a personality disorder involving severe disruption in moral behaviour accompanied by pronounced defects in emotion).
-for example, Glenn, conducted a study using MRI scans on 17 participants with varying degrees of psychopathy. He found that participants with higher psychopathy scores showed reduced activity, especially in the amygdala during emotional moral decision-making.
-reduced activity in the amygdala leads to problems with moral decision-making, this can lead to psychopathy and criminal characteristics as they are unlikely to decide between right and wrong.
-as well as this Raines study on NGRI murderers, found that the murderer had a higher glucose metabolism rate in the right amygdala and lower glucose metabolism rate in the left amygdala , compared to the control groups.
-this may be able to explain criminal behaviour as lowered function in the amygdala, leads the issues with a lack of empathy and morals
-raine also identified a lower glucose metabolism rate in the prefrontal cortex in NGRI murderers.
-The frontal lobe is responsible for logic and decision-making, this suggests that damage in this area can lead to poor decisions, which could result in crime. Also the frontal cortex is heavily linked to the amygdala, so dysfunction in both areas would lead to a lack of empathy mixed with bad decision-making, which would influence someone to commit crime.

Question 6

-evaluate the strengths of the role of the amygdala explanation of crime
-bio

Answer 6

-One strength— supporting evidence
-for example, Glenn, conducted a study using MRI scans on 17 participants with varying degrees of psychopathy. He found that participants with higher psychopathy scores showed reduced activity,
in the amygdala during emotional moral decision-making.
C- however, this study only shows how psychopaths go on commit crime which doesn’t represent all criminals.
-therefore, although there is supporting evidence, Which shows how the amygdala, can link to criminal characteristics, it is not representative of all criminals, only psychopaths, so can’t be used to explain all criminal behaviour, therefore being unreliable.

One strength—> reductionist.
-for example, criminal behaviour and criminal characteristics are reduced down to the explanation of an underactive amygdala. This would make it easier to study criminal behaviour, for example, it is easy to study a single component like amygdala dysfunction, then studying multiple explanations and viewing it holistically.
-however, having a reductionist viewpoint may over simplify criminal behaviour, as it is reducing down a whole behaviour to one explanation when there may be multiple explanations. For example, environmental factors
-therefore, being reductionist makes the explanation easier to understand and study, however, may lead the explanation being seen as incomplete as ignores other factors leading to
Criminality.

Question 7

-evaluate the weaknesses of the role of the amygdala explanation of crime
-bio

Answer 7

-One weakness— ignores nurture
-for example, the assumption only focuses on nature and biological influences on criminal behaviour. This is because it’s main focus on explaining criminal behaviour is a amygdala dysfunction, and low levels of activity in the amygdala when it comes to moral decision-making
-this shows how the explanation ignores nurtured influences, that could also be a predisposition to criminal behaviour, for example the environment raised in, and being around over criminals
Therefore, as the explanation ignores, nurtured influences, it may offer an incomplete and a vague explanation for criminal behaviour, therefore being seen as unreliable

Question 8

-describe, eysencks criminal personality, explanation of crime (10 mark)
-individual differences

Answer 8

-eysencks criminal personality, suggests that crime is down to the characteristics of our personality
-according to eysenck there are three different dimensions of our personality: introversion/extraversion, emotional stability/neuroticism and psychoticism/self-control.

-eysenck suggested that introversion refers to a nature that stuns crowds and prefers solitude and extroversion refers to an outgoing nature with high levels of activity. eysenck suggested that those who are extroverted need more cortical stimulation and arousal, so they are more likely to seek dangerous situations and impulsive actions to fulfil this stimulation, meaning extroverted people are more likely to take part in activities, such as theft and burglary.
-eysenck defined neuroticism as the opposite of emotional stability, so being filled with worry, anxiety and guilt. eysenck suggested that those who are neurotic have a heightened sympathetic nervous system, meaning that their flight or flight response is easily activated when in stress. This means that they are less likely to stay calm in stressful situations which can escalate an event to committing a crime, eg. Assault, manslaughter, etc.
-eysenck referred to psychoticism as aggressive, egocentric and antisocial nature. eysenck suggested that psychoticism was linked high levels of testosterone, from this, people are more likely to be less empathetic, aggressive and more troublesome.

From this eysenck concluded that having the PEN traits are more likely to lead criminal behaviour (extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism). From this, eysenck conducted a study. He used 2070 male prisoners and 2442 male controls. All participants were administered the eysencks personality questionnaire, which scores participants on psychoticism, extroversion, neuroticism and lie scales. The groups were sub divided into age groups, ranging from 16 to 69 years.
-It was found that scores on psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism were all higher in the prisoners than the controls on all three scales.

Question 9

Evaluate the strengths of eysencks criminal personality, explanation of crime
-individual differences

Answer 9

One strength— supporting evidence
For example, eysenck conducted a study. He used 2070 male prisoners and 2442 male controls. All participants were administered the eysencks personality questionnaire, which scores participants on psychoticism, extroversion, neuroticism and lie scales. The groups were sub divided into age groups, ranging from 16 to 69 years.
-It was found that scores on psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism were all higher in the prisoners compared controls on all three accounts
C- however, the study was conducted by Eysenck himself, meaning that the research could’ve been altered or manipulated to support his own theory
-therefore, although there is research to support Eysencks criminal personality theory, it may be unreliable due to research a bias as the findings could’ve been altered,
To support his own ideas.

-One strength— interactionist, viewpoint
-for example, Eysenck explain the criminal behaviour is based upon a combination of innate personality traits, as well as socialisation.
-for example, Eysenck believed that we are born with the specific personality traits of psychoticism, neuroticism, and extroversion, however, we are only likely to commit a crime when trigger to do so by influences in our environment. E.g. peer influences.
-this is a strength as an interactionist view, provides more of a complete explanation for criminal behaviour as it looks at all influences

Question 10

Evaluate the weaknesses of eysencks criminal personality, explanation of crime
-individual differences

Answer 10

-One weakness — the questionnaires used could lead to a social desirability bias
-for example Eysencks personality questionnaire is a self report measure where participants answer questions which correlates to different personality traits. This would be open to social desirability device as individuals may lie on the answers to be seen in a better light.
-C- however, Eysenck did participants that were not answering correctly, so their answers could be discarded.
-therefore, even though the accuracy can be questions due to social desirability bias, method have been taken such as a lie scale to reduce this chance.

Question 11

-describe the cognitive factors, explanation of crime/ Kohlbergs (5 mark)
-Individual differences

Answer 11

-Kohlberg, looked into moral reasoning, this is the study of how people think about right and wrong and how they acquire and apply moral rules.
-Kohlberg conducted study into his theory of moral development:
-he conducted a longitudinal, cross cultural study on boys, aged 10 to 16. The study went on for 12 years and finished when they were 22 to 28. Kohlberg tested the boys, moral development, using moral dilemmas.
-Kohlberg found six stages of moral reasoning, which fell into the 3 categories of: preconventional stage, the conventional stage, and the postconventional stage
-The stage which was most likely to lead crime would be stage two. This is because basic moral reasoning is developed in this stage, this means that criminals will break the law if they believe the benefits will outweigh the costs.
-people within levels three and four have stronger moral reasoning which doesn’t fit the typical criminal behaviour
-however, those are levels five and six, you have high moral reasoning are likely to commit crime from a sense of injustice, or to help with the greater good of others.

-it was suggested that criminal behaviour can be justified at all levels of moral reasoning:
-The preconventional stage is where you would break the law, if the benefits of the crime outweigh the cost
-In the conventional stage, you’re more likely to break the law, if it is justified to help maintain society or relationships
-the postconventional stage, you’re more likely to break the law, if it means maintaining human rights or for the greater good.

From this, a study was conducted based on kohlbergs findings.
-Chen and Howitt (2007): Male offenders in six youth correctional institutions in Taiwan and controls from one junior and two senior high schools participated in the study.
Self-reported criminal histories were classified according to their characteristic offence type (Drug, Violent, or Theft).
Overall moral reasoning development stage were significantly less mature in offenders than in controls despite the offenders’ mean age being higher. Those who showed more advanced moral reasoning were less likely to engage in violent crimes.
-this shows that levels of moral reasoning are linked with violent crimes.

Question 12

-evaluate the strengths of the cognitive factors, explanation of crime
-Individual differences

Answer 12

Strength- supporting evidence
For example, Chen and Howitt (2007): Male offenders in six youth correctional institutions in Taiwan and controls from one junior and two senior high schools participated in the study.
Self-reported criminal histories were classified according to their characteristic offence type (Drug, Violent, or Theft).
Overall moral reasoning development stage were significantly less mature in offenders than in controls despite the offenders’ mean age being higher. Those who showed more advanced moral reasoning were less likely to engage in violent crimes
-this is a strength as it provides evidence to show how moral reasoning is linked with criminal behaviour

P- strength— determanistic
-for example, if we know that being on a lower moral development stage, such as stage 2, leads to people being more likely to commit crime, the we can predict this behaviour. For example if someone is in the pre conventional stage ,on stage 2, then we can predict that they are likely to commit crimes like robbery and we could also provide intervention, by having conversations to try and move people up moral stages.
-however, having a deterministic veiw may not always be a positive thing as, those who are in the pre conventional stage of moral reasoning may feel like they can’t control this, and feel determined my there moral reasoning stage to commit crime.

Question 13

-evaluate the weaknesses of the cognitive factors, explanation of crime
-Individual differences

Answer 13

-one weakness— the retrospective nature of the data was collected
-for example in his research, Kohlberg, used hypothetical moral dialemas as a part of his interview process. One issue with the use of moral dialemas, is that they don’t accurately represent real life scenarios.
Also, as moral dialemas are used, the boys in the study may lie due to a social desirability bias, so they can be seen in a better light.
-therefore, there are issues with the retrospective nature of the data collected as the moral dilemmas don’t represent real life situations, there fore the results may not represent real life,lacking validity.

Question 14

-explain how the explanation of cognitive factors for crime can lead to method of modifying.
(5 mark)

Answer 14

-if criminal behaviour is caused by cognitive factors, then a cognitive treatment should be used.
-anger management is a form of CBT aiming to address the hostile attribution bias that leads to criminal behaviour. Instead of interpreting behaviour in a hostile way, anger management helps to change this attribution to a more rational way of
Thinking through methods like role-play.

Question 15

-explain the differential association theory of crime (10 mark)
-social psychological

Answer 15

-differential association is a social learning theory, suggesting that behaviour is learnt through, observation, imitation, and reinforcement
-differential association is based on the idea that people associate with others that have favourable attitudes towards crime, therefore affecting their own behaviour
-for example, if you spend time with people who commit crimes such as speeding, then you are likely to take on these beliefs yourself. E.g. believe it is okay to speed
-however, if you spend time with people who don’t commit crimes, then you’re more likely to take on these beliefs are not commit crimes
-One thing learned through the peer groups we hang around with, is the skills and techniques for committing crimes.
-An example of this would be favourable definitions, these are statements that justify legal acts.
For example, “ everyone cheats on their taxes”
-another example would be that through peer groups, we learn the skills needed to commit crimes,
For example, peer groups may teach you how to steal without getting caught.
The differential association theory suggests that there are free conditions that people need to meet in order to engage in criminal behaviour:
-The person has learnt the skill for committing the crime
-The person has the correct favourable definitions
-and the person has an opportunity to commit the crime

Differential association may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. For example, if the definitions are presented more frequently, for a long duration, early on in life, and from a more intense relationship, then it would lead to a higher chance in the process of producing crime.
-an example of this would be that a child is born into tax fraud, whose parents are always justifying their behaviour e.g. “ everyone does it”. The child then hears it throughout childhood, and then proceeds to commit tax fraud on their own business.
-showing the process of differential association

Question 16

-evaluate the strengths of the differential association, explanation of crime
-social psychological

Answer 16

One strength— supporting evidence
-for example, Osborne and West, compared the sons of criminal and non-criminal fathers. It was found that 13% of sons with non-criminal fathers had criminal convictions compared to 40% of the sons who had criminal fathers. This could be due to the children growing up around favourable definitions, therefore supporting the idea of the differential association explanation.
C-However, this explanation could also be down to a genetic predisposition, instead of the nurtured influence of the fathers.
-therefore, although there are supporting evidence showing influence of the fathers criminal behaviour on sons, it can be seen as unreliable as it is unclear that the criminal behaviour is down to nurture.

Question 17

-evaluate the weaknesses of the differential association, explanation of crime
-social psychological

Answer 17

-One weakness— ignores nature
-for example, the differential association theory only focuses upon the nurtured influence of criminal behaviour from our close intimate relationships. The explanation mainly focuses upon the skills and favourable definitions learn from our surrounding peers, leading to“ learnt” criminal behaviour.
-however, this ignores nature influences on criminal behaviour. For example, criminal behaviour could be down to a genetic predisposition, where genes are genetically, passed down through families, not through the surrounding family environment.
-therefore the explanation could be seen as incomplete as it only folks upon social and nurture factors and ignores other factors on our behaviour

-one weakness— differential association struggles to explain all crimes.
-for example, differential association, can explain, smaller crimes, such as burglary, fraud, organised crime, etc.
this is because it is easier to learn the skills to commit these crimes from others, and there is usually the opportunity for these crimes to be committed.
however, the differential association explanation fails to explain, violent impulsive crimes that usually committed alone for example murder.
This is because not many people would have favourable definitions towards these crimes, and it is rare that you would learn the skills to commit these crimes.
-therefore, this show is how differential association as an explanation is limited and can’t provide a full explanation for all crimes.

Question 18

-describe the gender socialisation theory of crime (5 mark)
-social psychological

Answer 18

-gender, socialisation theory refers to the learning of socially approved behaviours, gender norms and values, and attributes that have been associated with a biological sex.
-for example, children imitate what is modelled before them, and how different genders are supposed to act. -Gender socialisation starts in early childhood and occurs ,within families and through peers and is usually enforced by people of authority.
-this is based upon a social learning theory as we learn gender specific behaviours from our same-sex parents eg. Girls are likely to dress up and then Mother’s clothes.
-It is Suggested that typically girls had more of a frequent access to there mothers as a role model, as men were typically at work, so women did the child care. This meant that boys had less of an access to their fathers as role models. This led to boys being socialised by their mothers, which would then lead to them rebelling against feminine behaviours, as they searched for the missing masculine influence. this then let them to seek masculinity in peer groups who would reinforce masculine behaviour such as aggression.
-therefore the theory suggests that boys and girls are socialised differently, meaning that boys are more likely to commit crime through the way they are socialised.
-Sutherland identifies how girls are socialised in a manner, which is more controlled, which limits the opportunity for them to be defiant. in contrast, boys are socialised to be rough or tough and more aggressive, making them more likely to be rebellious to rules.

Question 19

-evaluate the strengths of the gender, socialisation theory of crime
-social psychological

Answer 19

-One strength— the gender, socialisation theory has led to practical application
-for example, the man up project has been developed from the idea of gender socialisation.
-The man not project aims to challenge some of the negative stereotypes, attitudes and behaviours experienced by men as a result of their socialisation. This helps to break the ideas that men need to fulfil masculine stereotypes and expectations, therefore reducing aggressive behaviours.
-therefore this shows how the theory has led to method of modifying, which can help the aggression of men in the long run

Question 20

-evaluate the weaknesses of the gender, socialisation theory of crime
-social psychological

Answer 20

-one weakness— men may not actually commit more crime than women due to the chivalry factor
-for example, the chivalry factor suggests that women may not actually commit less crime, however they are treated less harshly when they do.
- for example, as the criminal justice system is mainly male dominated, and men have been socialised, to have positive attitudes towards women, women may not actually commit less crimes. They just may be given lower sentences.
-this shows how the gender socialisation theory may be unreliable, as men may not actually commit more crimes due to the chivalry factor. This shows how socialisation wouldn’t affect the crime rates as men and women would commit the same amount of crimes

-One weakness— doesn’t consider nature
-for example, the gender socialisation theory only focus upon the nurtured influence of our parents as role models. It suggests that crime is due to a lack of a masculine role model for boys, leading them to turn to male peer groups, therefore allowing aggression to develop.
This shows how the theory doesn’t take nature into consideration, when nature may also play a role in criminal characteristics. For example, the higher testosterone rates in men may lead to them being more aggressive.
-therefore this shows how the gender socialisation theory would be unreliable, as it doesn’t consider all explanations leading into criminal behaviour, therefore can be seen as incomplete.

Question 21

-explain how the gender socialisation theory of crime can lead to a method of modifying
(5 mark)

Answer 21

-if a crime is caused by the way, which we socialise boys, then we need to address these stereotypes to reduce criminal behaviour
-The man up project was developed to aim to challenge negative stereotypes, attitudes and behaviours experienced by men as a result of a need to fulfil masculine stereotypes and expectations
-it does this by promoting more feminine strategies for conflict in management and displaying more male roles models that display non-aggressive behaviour

Question 22

-describe restorative justice as a method of modifying

Answer 22

Restorative justice is a system of dealing with criminal behaviour which focuses on the rehabilitation of offenders through reconciliation with the victims. The aim is for the offenders to see the impact of there crimes, also the process aims to empower victims by giving them a voice.
-restorative justice envolves a face to face encounter with the victim and offender, with an impartial facilitator, which is voluntary for all party’s envolved. This encounter should not be degrading for either the offender or the victim, as the main focus is to rehabilitate the offender and empower the victim.
The offender then may be able to give a financial restitution to the victim for the damage endured.
Restorative justice can sometimes be offered instead of a sentence if the victim agrees.
Through this process, restorative justice aims for the offender to see the impact from the statements given, as by the offender understanding the effect of there crime, they may not re-offend.
-restorative justice also encourages the offender to take responsibility for there crime, in hopes that it would prevent there future behaviour, as acknowledging there responsibility can lead to a change in attitude towards crime.
-the victim is also given a amendment for wrongdoing, this can be physical, how ever this should be more psychological eg. Empathy.

Question 23

-evaluate restorative justice in terms of effectiveness

Answer 23

RJ seems to be effective in reducing reoffending
• US/UK/Aus – western cultures
• Still 37% reoffending rate
Link: shows that RJ effective in reducing crime in western cultures – but not perfect

Link: even though RJ argues that it CAN be used for all types of crime
– it may not be the best method for certain types eg. Crimes which may of been really traumatic to the victim (rape, murder) may lead to stress in victim.

RJ seems to be effective
for victim
•Not 100% effective?
• Stats focus on victim not
offender
• Only UK stats?
Link: better outcome for
victim in comparison to
traditional sentencing for a
range of crimes

Question 24

-evaluate restorative justice in terms of social implications

Answer 24

s for ethics and social implications…
- Could make victim feel worse.
Psychological harm, bringing up past
trauma.
- Offender may not show empathy,
causing more stress to victim and
potential loss of self-esteem. Could
feel embarrassed or taken advantage
of
- Offender may feel shamed by victim.
Victim may feel in a position of power
and take advantage – could be more
harmful than beneficial for the offender.
Financial benefits of RJ
- prisoners cost money (in 2019/20 – 44.6
thousand per place). If RJ reduces
reoffending – less people in prison
- Also – less money spent on custodial
proceedings (court costs, police time etc)
- Sometimes, the costs of RJ are placed on the
offender – so no cost to community
Wider community approach
- Community is one of the stakeholders of RJ.
Helps offenders reintegrate – circles of
support help to reduce reoffending
Offenders could take advantage of process
- Could dangerous people be integrated back
into society too soon

Question 25

-Evaluate restorative justice in terms of ethical implications

Answer 25

• Could make victim feel worse.
  Psychological harm, bringing up past
  trauma.
• Offender may not show empathy,
  causing more stress to victim and
  potential loss of self-esteem. Could
  feel embarrassed or taken advantage
  or
• Offender may feel shamed by victim.
  Victim may feel in a position of power
  and take advantage – could be more
  harmful than beneficial for the offender.

Question 26

-Describe anger management as a method of modifying

Answer 26

-anger management is a form of cognitive behavioural therapy that aims to reduce emotional responses by reconceptualising them.
-The therapy in the short term aims to reduce aggression in prisons, and in the long-term aims to reduce reoffending rates.
-anger management aims to do this through addressing hostile attribution bias (hostile attribution bias is the way we interpret other peoples actions to be aggressive when they are not). By changing the way, criminals perceive situations.
-this shows how anger management intends to change the way, an offender responses with anger and aggression by changing the way the offender interprets a situation.
-novaco, identified 3 main aims from anger management:
-cognitive restructuring— which means having a self awareness and controller over triggers
-Regulation of arousal— which is learning to control the psychological state
— behavioural strategies- these are problem-solving and strategic withdrawal strategies
-from this, the stress, inoculation model was formed, this starts with novoacos model, And then draws on stress inoculation training, allowing a criminal to cope before a problem arises
There are 3 steps to this;
-cognitive preparation — the offender learns about anger, and then recognises their own anger patterns through identifying situations that provoke their anger. this is so they can identify when an aggressive outburst, may occur.
— skill acquisition- stop and think, this is where techniques and communication skills come in
-and then there’s application— This is applying skills to real life situations, this could involve role-play.

Question 27

-evaluate anger management in terms of effectiveness

Answer 27

P- supporting evidence
-for example, An experimental group of 50 male prisoners who had completed an anger-management course (CALM) were compared with a control group of 37 male prisoners who had been assessed as suitable for the course but not actually completed one.
Results - Prisoners who had completed CALM rated themselves lower on the anger questionnaire and were rated lower on the wing-based aggression by the prison officers. There was no significant reduction in either of these measures in the control group. 92% of the treatment group showed improvements on at least one measure of aggression, 48% showed improvement on both measures. 8% showed no improvement or deterioration on both measures.

P- participants can take for voluntary
-For example, offenders in a prison, consign themselves up to taking anger management sessions
-this increases the programs effectiveness as offenders who take part voluntary, are usually more committed to the programs success, this is in contrast of treatments, such as token economy, which are enforced over entire prison system, meaning it may not be successful in all cases.
-therefore it shows how offenders are going to be motivated to change their anger therefore improving the programs effectiveness

-one weakness— only focuses upon the cognitive and behavioural aspects of anger
-for example, anger management only focuses upon hostile attribution bias, and aims to change the way offenders view situations to reduce their aggression
-this ignores the possible factors like physical and biological factors such as an excessive amount of testosterone,
Which is also linked to anger.
-this shows how anger management may be ineffective, as it doesn’t modify, all causes, leading into anger,
Meaning the aggressive behaviour can keep occurring.

Question 28

-evaluate anger management in terms of ethical issues

Answer 28

-strength—helping anger can reduce negative physical effects
- For example, according to the mayo clinic, anger can have an adverse health effects, such as: headaches, high blood pressure, problems with sleep, etc.
-so, therefore, by having a method of modifying that reduces anger, it may also help inmates with health problems as well
-this is ethical as it is reducing both the anger, The inmate is experiencing as well as the negative side-effects of anger they are experiencing therefore reducing the harm experienced

Question 29

-Evaluate anger management in terms of social issues

Answer 29

-one strength — helps with reoffending rates
-for example, anger management aims to reduce aggressive behaviour by offenders, by changing there hostile, attribution bias, so they don’t view situations as aggressive.
-reducing this aggression, would mean that reoffending rates are lowered as offenders aren’t reoffending, as they can now manage their anger in situations.
-This would have positive social benefits, as it would mean society is safer, as well as this, the money that would originally have gone into prisons, could then be put elsewhere due to lower reoffending rates

-social— lack of cross, cultural evidence
-for example, in western culture, anger is often seen as manly and glorified. However, in eastern culture to become overly angry is to “lose face”.
-from this, there have been very few cross cultural studies to research where anger comes from within other cultures and the causes of it in other cultures
-this shows how anger management can’t be applied to the whole of society, as there may be different reasons for anger in different cultures, so may not be able to be applied to other cultures.