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Clinical and Neuropsychology - 1 > CPch.2 - Approaches to Psychopathology > Flashcards

CPch.2 - Approaches to Psychopathology Flashcards

1
Q

Genetic Influences on Psychopathology

A
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2
Q

In Nature vs nurture, what does nature and what does nurture refer to

A
  • Nature: genes influence our bodies and brain
  • Nurture: Environment determines which genes are turned on & off
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3
Q

When it comes to genes, what is important in determining an organism’s uniqueness (number, type, order etc.)?

A
  • Sequencing, order and what genes are what make us unique
  • Number of genes isn’t important
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4
Q

What is Gene expression and how does it work?

A

Process by which the information encoded in a gene is turned into a function.
1/. Genes make proteins that make the body and brain work
2/. In turn these proteins switch on or off other genes

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5
Q

What is the relationship between genes-nature vs nurture and Psychopathology?

A
  • Genes: Disorder are ALWAYS polygenic
  • Nature vs Nurture plays a big role in their potential expression and their severity
    (e.g. schizophrenia develops through interaction of genes and environment, not genes alone)
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6
Q

What is Heritability?

A

Extent to which variability of a behavior within a population is due to genetic influences.
- Value: 0.0 -> 1.0
- Only for a large population (not individuals)
- !!! Also depends on environment though !!!

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7
Q

What did the Turkenheimer study show?

A
  • IQ has high heritability, 50 genes associated with it
  • Environment influences Heritability:
    ~Among low SES families, 60& of variability in children is due to Environment (once you go under the threshold, whoever has worse conditions is going to have worse IQ, , whoever has just a bit better conditions, will have a better IQ)
    ~ Among high SES families, Environment doesn’t play a role (if you’re a millionaire or a billionaire: doesn’t play a difference in IQ)
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8
Q

What are the two types of Environmental influences?

A
  • Shared environments
  • Non-shared environments
    2 siblings can be completely different, even though they have many shared environments, because of their non-shared environments
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9
Q

What are the three ways of looking at the Genetic Influences on Psychopathology?

A
  • Behavior Genetics
  • Molecular Genetics
  • Gene-Environment interaction
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10
Q

(Behavior Genetics)

A
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11
Q

What is Behavior Genetics?

A

The study of the DEGREE to which genetic and environmental factors influence behavior

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12
Q

What is genotype and phenotype?

A
  • Genotype: total genetic makeup of an individual
  • Phenotype: observed characteristics and behavior
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13
Q

Why do we say that genotypes and phenotypes are dynamic entites?

A

Both change over time
- Genotypes: switch on and off at specific times (gene expression)
- Phenotypes: change over time due to interaction of genes with environment -> both environment and genes being activate change

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14
Q

(Molecular Genetics)

A
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15
Q

What is the definition of Molecular Genetics?

A

Molecular Genetics studies seek to identify:
- Genes and their functions
- Differences in people between structure and sequence of their genes

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16
Q

What is the general hierarchy in organization of chromosomes and their fundamental units

A

Humans: 46 chromosomes.
Chromosomes -> Gene=DNA -> nucleotides (A,T,G, or C)

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16
Q

What are Alleles?

A

Different forms of the same gene. Found at the same location (locus) of a chromosome pair

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17
Q

What is Polymorphism?

A

A difference in DNA sequence on a gene within a population (genetic variation within a population)

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18
Q

What are the 2 phenomena through which we can study and observe polymorphism?

A
  • Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP’s): Difference between people in a single nucleotide in the DNA sequence of a particular gene (A,T,G, or C) (Chromosome Male of pair 1, Gene 1, observe different sequence)
  • Copy Number Variations (CNV’s): Abnormal copies of a section of our DNA within a gene:
    ~ Additions: extra copies are present
    ~ deletions: copies are missing
    in general, 5% of the world population has some form of CNV
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19
Q

Which method is used to observe SNP’s and CNV’s?

A

Genome-Wide Association studies (GWA studies)

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20
Q

What insights have GWA’s given us on psychological disorders?

A
  • Disorders are polygenic
  • Diverse disorders have the same/common genetic risks (some problematic genes can lead to many disorders)
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21
Q

(Gene-Environment interaction)

A
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22
Q

What are the two thoughts on the gene-environment interaction?

A
  • People’s sensitivity to the environment is influenced by their genes
  • Epigenetics
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23
Q

What is Epigenetics?

A

The study of how the environment can alter our gene expression and gene function
- Epigenetic marks: substances that are attached to the DNA in each gene and protect it
- Environment influences these marks

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24
Q

What are challenges when trying to understand the role of genetics on psychopathology?

A
  • Difficult to specify EXACTLY how genes and environment influence one another (which genes, which environment, when etc.)
  • Long pathway between genes and complex behaviors of disorders: difficult to put together all genetic pieces to determine all the genes specifically and their interaction with the environment, to determine how a disorder has come about
  • Genetic vulnerability increases risk for psychopathology more broadly instead of increasing risk for specific disorders
    ~ Some argue internalizing (mood, anxiety), externalizing (e.g. substance use) and psychotic disorders each have a specific gene vulnerability
    ~ Others argue all disorders have the same genetic vulnerability
25
Q

Neuroscience

A
26
Q

What problems with neurotransmitters lead to/increase the risk for psychological disorders?

A
  • Neurotransmitter synthesis: Neurotransmitters are synthesized through metabolic steps in the neuron, and faults in these steps cna alter the transmitter’s activity
  • Problems with deactivation of neurotransmitter after being released into the synapse (e.g. problems with reuptake -> excessive transmitter in synapse)
  • Problems with neurotransmitter receptors
27
Q

Which neurotransmitters are associated with what disorders?

A
  • Serotonin, Dopamine: Depression, Mania, Schizophrenia
  • Norepinephrine: Influences Sympathetic N.S. -> Anxiety Disorders (stress conditions in general)
  • GABA: inhibits nerve impulses -> anxiety disorders
28
Q

Which disorder can errors in development of brain lead to?

A

Schizophrenia.
Errors in development of cells and migration to their different layers lead to this disorder.

29
Q

What are the different types of connectivity in the brain?

A
  • Structural: How they’re connected through white matter
  • Functional: How they’re connected based on correlation between BOLD levels
  • Effective: Combination of the above two
30
Q

What have we discovered by assessing these two types of connectivity when studying the brain?

A

Brain networks: brain regions connected to one another which activate when somebody’s performing a certain task

31
Q

What does the HPA Axis stand for, and what is it important for?

A
  • Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
  • Stress
32
Q

When faced with a threat, how does the HPA Axis work?

A
  • perception of threat -> hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing factors (CRF) -> pituitary gland releases adrenocorticotropic hormone -> outer layers of adrenal gland (adrenal cortex) -> release of cortisol (“stress hormone”, release and release pattern of cortisol change according to stress)
33
Q

How can chronic stress lead to a disorder/increase risk factors for them?

A
  • Exposure to stress in early life sensitizes HPA axis to respond in a certain way even in adulthood
  • Chronic Stress: long-lasting changes in cortisol release, which are linked to schizophrenia, depression, PTSD
34
Q

How does the immune system function?

A

1/. Infectious micro-organism enters human organism
2/. Macrophages, natural killer cells and T-cell are released in response to the infectious micro-org. entering
Macrophages -> release cytokines (cause inflammation, fatigue, activation of HPA Axis). Helpful cytokines are called pro-inflammatory cytokines?

35
Q

How are pro-inflammatory cytokines and disorders related?

A
  • Some types of cytokines are associated with Depression
  • Some other types are associated with depression
36
Q

What are some neuroscientific treatments/types of medication?

A
  • Prozac: Antidepressants -> inhibit reuptake of serotonin (increase neural transmission of neurons with serotonin)
  • Benzodiazepines (e.g. Xanax) -> stimulate GABA to inhibit neural systems that create physical symptoms of anxiety
  • Olanzapine -> work on dopamine/serotonin (schizophrenia)
  • Adderall -> children with ADHD: operate on many neurotransmitters to help person focus
37
Q

What is the idea of Reductionism and some criticism against it?

A

Whatever is being studied CAN & SHOULD be reduced to it’s most basic elements
Criticism: Whole is greater than the sum of its parts

38
Q

When coming up with pharmacological treatments, what order of actions to researchers engage in?

A

1/. Create pharmacological treatment
2/. Observe changes in symptoms
3/. study neurotransmitters
4/. Correlate with disorder
5/. Specify/update treatment
NOT: Study disorder -> find N.T. -> develop treatment

39
Q

What are some general notes regarding the brain and psychological disorders?

A
  • Not just one area of the brain can be linked to a specific disorder -> brain networks
  • Commonality of brain network dysfunction across disorders (one dysfunctional brain network can lead to many disorders, like genes)
40
Q

Cognitive-Behavioral Influences

A
41
Q

How does Behavior Activation Therapy (BA) work?

A

Helps person identify and engage in tasks that provide an opportunity for positive reinforcement
- Unwanted behaviors are extinguished with time-out: send person to a location with no positive reinforcement

42
Q

What was the general criticism of Behaviorism?

A

Didn’t take into account thinking and feeling

43
Q

What is the relationship between Schemas and Attention?

A

Our schemas about the world determine what we pay more attention to (more attention to threats, perceive ambiguous info as threatening)

44
Q

What is the relationship between Attention and Disorders?

A

In general, people with disorders of any type have trouble with attention
- People with schizophrenia have trouble concentrating in general
- Anxiety disorders: focus their attention on threatening stimuli all the time -> !!! Schemas maybe make them interpret all stimuli as more threatening than anybody else
(familiarity also plays a role in what we pay attention to)

45
Q

What is Cognitive-Behavior Therapy (CBT)?

A

A therapy method that incorporates theory and research on cognitive processes.
Steps for therapy:
1/. Therapist pays attention to private events (thoughts, perceptions, judgements etc.)
2/. Engages in cognitive restructuring: change a pattern of thought that is troubling for person with disorder.
(e.g. depression: often think critically about self, anxiety disorders: overly sensitive to threats in environment

46
Q

What was the main idea behind the creation of Beck’s Cognitive Therapy?

A

Depressed mood comes from distorted ways of perceiving life experiences (e.g. focus only on negatives)

47
Q

What was the goal of Beck’s Therapy?

A

Provide People with experiences, inside and outside of therapy that will alter negative schemas
(e.g. patient says everything is bad, therapist provides counter examples in which things have gone right)

48
Q

What are the differences between 3rd wave Behavioral Treatments and Beck’s Therapy?

A
  • Focus on spirituality, values, emotions and acceptance
  • 3rd Wave goal is to help people become more aware of emotions. but avoid immediate, impulsive reactions to them
49
Q

What are some criticisms of CBT?

A
  • CBT states that thoughts are only the cause for a disorder. Research shows that thought can also predict onset of disorder.
  • Doesn’t specify were these thoughts have come from
    (Current studies are trying to focus on what mechanisms sustain these types of thoughts, specific to many psychopathologies)
50
Q

Socioemotional Influence

A
51
Q

What are the 3 components of emotion?

A
  • Expressive: Facial Expressions
  • Experience/Subjective Feeling: One’s subjective report of how he/she feels
  • Physiological: changes in body
52
Q

What is the relationship between Emotions and Disorders?

A
  • 85% of psychological disorders are caused due to emotional disturbances
  • Different disorders affect different components of emotion and what emotions we feel:
    ~ schizophrenia: weak expressive, strong subjective
    ~ depression: prolonged sadness/negative feelings (strong subjective)
    ~ Panic disorder: excessive fear with no danger present
    ~ antisocial personality disorder: no empathy
    (!!! Emotions: cause or result debate? !!!)
53
Q

How does each cultures ideal affects influence the type of disorders its people develop more often?

A
  • Western Culture ideal affect: happiness vs Eastern Culture ideal affect: less-arousing positive emotions:
    ~ Western cultures: more treatment for cocaine/amphetamine (stimulating drugs
    ~ Eastern Cultures: more treatment for heroin (calming effects)
54
Q

What are some general sociocultural influences on psychological disorders?

A
  • Gender differences: Father-to-son generic transmission -> important factor for development of alcohol use disorder in men, women -> more likely to have an eating disorder (cultural differences)
  • Poverty, inequality
    !!! Sociocultural influences -> disorders or disorder -> sociocultural influences (results)? Or both?
55
Q

What are some ethnic/cultural differences when it comes to psychological disorders?

A

All cultures have psychological disorders. The differences lie in:
- What symptoms are considered part of a disorder
- What symptoms are expressed among different cultures
- Availability and Willingness for Treatment

56
Q

What are some racial differences when ti comes to Psychological Disorders?

A

Some races are diagnosed more often with some disorders. But:
- Is it because they actually have this disorder more often?
- Is it because of diagnostic bias? (We think a certain race has more of a disorder, so as a clinician our bias leads to more diagnosis of a certain disorder in a certain race)
- Is it because of differences in seeking out treatment?

57
Q

What is the Interpersonal Therapy?

A

Therapy method that emphasizes the importance of relationships in a person’s life and how problems in them can contribute to psychological disorders

58
Q

What are the 3 steps in Interpersonal Therapy?

A
  • Identify feelings about a relationship
  • Express feelings about a relationship
  • Help patients generate a solution to their problems
59
Q

What are some interpersonal issues assessed in case they have an impact on symptoms?

A
  • Unresolved grief
  • Role transitions (from worker to retired)
  • Role disputes (e.g. solving problems and expectations between romantic partners)
  • Interpersonal/social deficits (e.g. afraid to begin a conversation with an unfamiliar person)
60
Q

What are some general stressors that might lead to psychological disorders?

A
  • Domestic violence, exposure to death, sexual violence, serious injury (according to APA, TRAUMATIC EVENTS)
  • Stress, maltreatment of trauma during childhood: risk factor for all disorders
61
Q

What are some general problems when studying how sociocultural factors influence psychological disorders?

A
  • Are sociocultural influences the cause or the result of the problem? (PROBLEM OF CAUSALITY)
  • Sociocultural influences are often interrelated: e.g. stress and poverty: How do we determine which of the two plats what role in observed behavior?

Clinical and Neuropsychology - 1 (21 decks)

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