Covering Unit #2: The Environment and Climate Change Flashcards
What is the materials economy and what are the five components? What’s missing from this system?
The materials economy is a linear system that involves extracting resources from the natural environment, putting them into production by adding synthetic chemicals and producing products, distributing those products to the market for sale, relying on consumers to buy them at an increasing rate, and then trashing much of what is consumed within six months. What’s missing from this system is recycling, reusing, or extending the use of products, as well as the recognition that this linear system cannot work indefinitely on a planet with finite resources.
Identify at least 4 different global issues related to Chevron/Texaco and their oil extraction operations in the Ecuadorian Amazon?
At least four different global issues related to Chevron/Texaco’s oil extraction operations in the Ecuadorian Amazon are:
◦Environmental damage to a biodiverse area due to major pollution from drilling operations. This includes the release of oil and produced water into the environment, contaminating streams and land.
◦Alleged health effects on local communities, with claims of increased rates of cancer, miscarriages, skin conditions, and birth defects due to the pollution.
◦A long legal battle spanning decades involving Ecuadorian communities, Chevron, and international courts, highlighting issues of corporate accountability and environmental justice.
◦The accusation that Chevron, after taking over Texaco, avoided liability for the pollution despite admitting that large sludge pits still exist in the Amazon. This also involves disputes over the effectiveness of prior cleanup efforts.
What is planned obsolescence, perceived obsolescence, and how do these strategies compliment the materials economy?
Planned obsolescence is when products are designed to be disposable to encourage more consumption. Perceived obsolescence is when consumers are convinced to discard perfectly fine working products only to buy newer, fancier versions. These strategies complement the materials economy by fueling the “golden arrow of consumerism,” the need to keep consuming more to keep the linear system going.
Define cost externalization using the terminology presented in lecture, and give at least one
example.
Cost externalization in the context of the linear materials economy means that the real cost of making products is not captured in the price, and instead, the environment and people working in factories pay the costs (e.g., pollution, health impacts) to make products cheaper so that more can be bought. An example is a factory that releases pollutants into a local river without paying for the environmental damage or the health issues it causes for the community downstream; these costs are externalized to the environment and the people, not reflected in the price of the goods produced.
Summarize the involvement of the U.S. at the 5 World Conference on the Environment meetings.
At the Fourth World Conference in 2002, the European Union suggested a target of 15% of global energy from renewables by 2010. The United States strongly opposed this effort and joined forces with Saudi Arabia, Canada, and Japan to defeat the target. By 2012, at the Fifth Conference in Rio, countries shared progress and challenges but avoided talking about any specific targets for sustainable development goals, avoided committing to any solutions, and avoided any talk about climate change and energy issues.
What is at the heart of the materials economy system?
The golden arrow of consumerism is at the heart of the materials economy system. We need to keep consuming and consuming more to keep this material economy going.
For each of the environmental issues discussed in class (issues with air, water, land) be able to identify pollution sources (including the biggest sources for the U.S. and globally), types of pollution, and challenges.
Air Pollution:
◦Sources: Coal-fired power plants (biggest global source), automobiles and other combustion engine transportation (largest single source in the U.S.), industrial manufacturing of metals, waste incinerators, burning trash, utilities, lead acid battery manufacturers, lead manufacturing, and historically, leaded gasoline.
◦Types of Pollution: Nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, small particles, hydrocarbons, heavy metals (arsenic, mercury, cadmium, lead), airborne lead, sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen (leading to acid rain). Greenhouse gas emissions also contribute to air pollution and global warming.
◦Challenges: Air pollution causes premature deaths globally, with a disproportionate impact on lower to middle-income countries. Addressing these issues requires government action, as the cost of inaction is far worse.
Water Pollution:
◦Sources: Industrial wastewater discharge, urban and agricultural runoff of herbicides, pesticides, fertilizers, fungicides, oil from cars, PCBs, mercury, and in developing countries, the lack of sanitation systems leading to raw sewage in the environment. Oil spills from pipelines and tankers are also significant sources of water pollution.
◦Types of Pollution: Chemical pollutants from industrial waste, agricultural runoff, PCBs, mercury, and oil.
◦Challenges: Despite regulations, illegal dumping of industrial waste occurs. Agricultural and urban runoff carries numerous pollutants into water bodies. Developing countries often face even worse water pollution problems.
Land Pollution:
◦Sources: Trashing of products leading to landfills, solid waste, and accidents causing environmental disasters.
◦Types of Pollution: Solid waste, chemical leaching from landfills.
◦Challenges: The linear materials economy generates a vast amount of waste, with 99% of products trashed within six months, which is unsustainable.
Why is the use of coal-fired power plants such a big environmental issue? Which country consumes almost as much coal per year as all other countries combined?
The use of coal-fired power plants is a big environmental issue because burning coal releases nasty pollutants such as nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, small particles, hydrocarbons, and toxic heavy metals, contributing to major air pollution. China consumes almost as much coal per year as all other countries combined.
What problems arose in response to the depletion of the ozone layer by emission of CFCs and other gases in the recent past?
The depletion of the ozone layer by the emission of CFCs and other gases led to a thinning of the ozone layer generally and a hole in the ozone over polar regions. This resulted in unfiltered ultraviolet rays from the sun penetrating the atmosphere, which can kill marine plankton and lead to problems such as increased skin cancer in humans.
Regarding chemical pollutants, explain the “reactionary instead of precautionary” approach?
Regarding chemical pollutants, the “reactionary instead of precautionary” approach means that industries and governments often allow the use of chemicals until later they realize that they are a problem, pulling them off the market after great irreversible damage has been done. This contrasts with a precautionary approach, which would involve testing the safety of chemicals before widespread use. DDT is given as a good example of a chemical used until it was realized to be super toxic.
Explain the environmental issues associated with crude oil extraction and transport. Why are those issues often more severe in developing countries (like Ecuador) vs. developed countries (like the U.S.), even when the same corporations may be involved in both scenarios?
Environmental issues associated with crude oil extraction include the release of toxins, the production of toxic produced water containing heavy metals and radioactive elements, and potential leaks from waste pits. Crude oil transport via pipelines is also problematic as all oil pipelines fail at some point, leading to spills. These issues are often more severe in developing countries like Ecuador because they frequently have weaker environmental regulations and controls, making them “pollution havens” for corporations. As seen with US companies in Ecuador, the same corporations might operate with fewer environmental safeguards compared to developed countries like the U.S.. Additionally, there might be less demand for eco-certified practices in some developing nations, weakening the incentive for sustainable operations.
identify some of the biggest (and most well-known) oil spills. Know their locations, as well as the nature of the spill (oil tanker ship, pipeline, offshore platform, war, etc).
Some of the biggest and most well-known oil spills include:
◦A river fire in the U.S. caused by a train crossing a bridge (nature: accidental).
◦The Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska in 1989 (location: Alaska, nature: oil tanker ship colliding with a reef).
◦Oil spills during the 1990-91 Gulf War (location: Persian Gulf, nature: war-related).
◦The Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 (location: Gulf of Mexico, nature: offshore platform wellhead break).
◦Spills from the Trans-Alaskan pipeline (location: Alaska, nature: pipeline failure).
◦Spills from the Trans-Ecuadorian pipeline (location: Ecuador, nature: pipeline failure).
Describe the great Pacific garbage patch — where is it found, where is the plastic coming from, why is this problem a global-scale issue?
The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is found in the North Pacific Ocean, roughly 1,000 miles east of Hawaii. The plastic comes from litter and waste that originates on land, including along highways and roads, which then gets washed into waterways and eventually the ocean. This plastic breaks down into smaller and smaller fragments. This is a global-scale issue because plastics are accumulating in the oceans worldwide, impacting marine life through ingestion and the introduction of toxic chemicals like carcinogens and endocrine disruptors (PCBs, DDT, PAHs) into the food chain, ultimately affecting humans. The problem is a result of the widespread use of disposable plastics, for which we are all responsible.
What are some solutions that can be implemented to address environmental issues?
Some solutions that can be implemented to address environmental issues include:
◦Undertaking global protection efforts.
◦Adopting a cultural paradigm shift in how we live and interact with the planet.
◦Focusing on addressing equity issues, which can simultaneously address environmental issues.
◦Implementing sustainability practices.
◦Introducing efficiency measures to consume less energy, water, resources, and products.
◦Decreasing consumption by buying less and making products more efficient.
◦Addressing the environmental pressures associated with cost externalization.
◦Developing zero waste systems and practices and promoting closed loop production practices.
◦Phasing out coal and fossil fuels, ending new fossil fuel exploration and production, and shifting subsidies to renewable energy.
◦Increasing adaptation and resilience finance to protect vulnerable communities.
◦Promoting sustainable management of land, conserving and restoring forests, and improving agriculture.
◦Learning from successful international efforts like the Montreal Protocol for phasing out ozone-depleting substances.
◦Working towards a low-carbon economy as outlined in agreements like the Paris Agreement.
Explain how incoming sunshine (solar radiation) interacts with greenhouse gases compared to outgoing terrestrial radiation, and what the ultimate effect is on the temperature of Earth’s atmosphere.
Incoming sunshine (short wave solar radiation) is transparent to greenhouse gases and passes through to the Earth’s surface. Outgoing terrestrial radiation (long wave radiation) emitted by the Earth is absorbed by greenhouse gases, preventing some of it from immediately escaping into space. This trapping of heat by greenhouse gases leads to a gradual warming of the Earth’s atmosphere.
How is climate change destroying coral reefs?
Climate change is destroying coral reefs through warming ocean temperatures which can lead to coral bleaching (the expulsion of symbiotic algae) and ultimately death. Additionally, the absorption of increased atmospheric CO2 by the oceans leads to ocean acidification, which negatively impacts the ability of coral to build their calcium carbonate skeletons.
As examined through different examples in the documentary “This Changes Everything”, since the 1980’s, our ability to confront and address climate change has been challenged in “a case of bad timing” by what forces? That is, how has the influence of government in relation to corporations and free-market capitalism changed, and what affect has that had on the ability of societies to address climate change?
Since the 1980s, the ability to confront and address climate change has been challenged by a “case of bad timing” due to the ideology that “the state just needs to get out of the way, that the market should be allowed to let rip”. This shift towards reduced government intervention and the prioritization of free-market capitalism has hindered the necessary government action during the escalating climate crisis.
Regarding global warming, why is a global average temperature increase of 2ºC such an important and significant threshold (as defined in The Paris Agreement)?
A global average temperature increase of 2ºC is considered an important and significant threshold because exceeding it is predicted to cause the Earth’s systems to start to unravel. The Paris Agreement aims to keep warming well below 2 degrees Celsius and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees C, as even a 1 degree Celsius change could cause major threats.
What does the Acronym “UNFCCC” stand for, what is it’s aim, and what landmark agreement was established by this organization at COP 21?
The acronym “UNFCCC” stands for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Its aim is to reduce global GHG emissions in an attempt to get climate change under control. The Paris Agreement was the landmark agreement established by this organization at COP 21 in 2015.
What qualifies an atmospheric gas to be a “greenhouse” gas?
An atmospheric gas qualifies as a “greenhouse” gas because it is not transparent to radiation, specifically it absorbs long wave radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface. These gases act like the glass panels of a greenhouse, trapping heat and warming the atmosphere. Examples include carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor.
Why does CO2 get the bulk of attention? Name at least two other greenhouse gases
CO2 gets the bulk of attention because it is a major greenhouse gas released in tremendous amounts by human activities like the burning of fossil fuels. It also has a very long persistence time in the atmosphere. Two other greenhouse gases are methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide. Ozone is also mentioned as a greenhouse gas. Water vapor is another variable greenhouse gas.
How much has global average temperature warmed over the last 140 years in degrees F?
.Global average temperature has warmed by one and a half degrees Fahrenheit over the last century (referring to over more than a century up to 2018).
Be able to explain the composition of the atmosphere including the “ingredients” as well as which gases are variable, constant, transparent or not transparent to shortwave and longwave radiation, and what makes up the particulate component of the atmosphere.
The atmosphere is mostly made up of constant gases that do not vary in abundance, including nitrogen (N2, 78%), oxygen (O2, 21%), and argon (0.93%). These constant gases are transparent to all forms of radiation moving in and out of the planet.
◦Variable gases vary in abundance and include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and water vapor. These three gases are not transparent to radiation; they absorb long wave radiation emitted by Earth’s surface and are therefore greenhouse gases.
◦The particulate component of the atmosphere is made up of things like dust, pollen, smog, smoke, volcanic ash, etc., which can interfere with the movement of radiation.
Know the “Global Energy Budget” diagram (including the amounts) to include incoming and outgoing radiation, the transfer of energy within the system via heat, and the role of greenhouse gases.
The “Global Energy Budget” involves:
◦Incoming short wave radiation from the sun, with 100 units used as a baseline.
◦31 units are reflected back to space by bright surfaces like clouds and snow.
◦69 units enter the Earth’s system.
◦20 of these 69 units are absorbed by the atmosphere (e.g., by ozone, dust, smog), warming it.
◦49 units reach the Earth’s surface and are absorbed, causing it to warm.
◦The warm surface emits long wave terrestrial radiation.
◦About 7 units of long wave radiation leave the surface and are absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
◦About 12 units of long wave radiation from the surface directly escape to space.
◦Greenhouse gases then emit long wave radiation in all directions, with some going back to the surface and some higher into the atmosphere.
◦Direct heat transfer (conduction and convection) moves about 7 units of sensible heat from the surface to the atmosphere.
◦Latent heat transfer through evaporation moves about 23 units of energy from the surface to the atmosphere.
◦The 57 units of energy in the atmosphere (20 from absorbed shortwave + 7 from absorbed longwave + 30 from heat transfer) eventually wiggle their way back to space as long wave radiation.
◦The total 69 units of outgoing energy (57 from the atmosphere + 12 from the surface) balances the 69 units of incoming energy.
◦Greenhouse gases play a crucial role by absorbing outgoing long wave radiation, trapping heat in the atmosphere and contributing to a warmer environment. Increased greenhouse gases enhance this effect, leading to global warming.
To understand why GHGs are a problem requires an understanding of the global energy budget. How do increases in the concentration of greenhouse gases alter the energy balance of the planet?
Increases in the concentration of greenhouse gases alter the energy balance of the planet by absorbing more of the outgoing long wave radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, preventing it from escaping into space. This traps more heat within the Earth’s system, leading to a net accumulation of energy and a warming planet.
What is dendrochronology? How is it used in climate science?
Dendrochronology involves the use of tree-ring data to understand past climate history. When trees grow, they produce a new outer layer or ring each year. Wetter years result in thicker rings, while drier years produce thinner rings, providing a record of past wet and dry periods. This data can also indicate the duration of seasons. Because some tree species like bristlecone pines can live for thousands of years and their deadwood decays slowly, dendrochronology offers a tremendously detailed record of climate history going back almost 8 or 9,000 years. This understanding of past climates is super important when making comparisons to what’s happening today.
What do ice cores provide to our understanding of climate?
Ice cores provide information about the atmospheric composition at various points in time in the past by trapping air bubbles in the ice when snow fell many years ago. Scientists can extract this air to understand past atmospheric gas concentrations and how they relate to temperature swings.
What are three key considerations of GHGs that are contributing to the accelerated pace of climate change?
Three key considerations of GHGs that are contributing to the accelerated pace of climate change are:
◦The amount and rate of greenhouse gas emissions.
◦The potency of each gas at absorbing radiation (its ability to stop the movement of energy). For example, methane has incredible potency.
◦The length of time (persistence) that those gases remain in the atmosphere after being released. Carbon dioxide has a very long persistence time.
What is the biggest driver of global warming?
The biggest driver of global warming is CO2 (carbon dioxide) due to the high volume of emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and its long persistence time in the atmosphere.
What is the survivable “safe” level of CO2 in the atmosphere in PPM, and what is the current level?
The survivable “safe” level of CO2 in the atmosphere was hoped to be no more than 350 parts per million (PPM). The current level is 416 PPM as of March 2021.
What are 4 different sources of CO2 emissions?
Four different sources of CO2 emissions are:
◦Burning of fossil fuels in power plants, vehicles, and buildings.
◦Deforestation, where cutting down trees releases stored carbon.
◦Cement production, through the calcination of limestone.
◦Decaying organic matter.
Regarding climate change, provide two examples of positive feedback loops and explain how they contribute to the accelerated pace of climate change
Two examples of positive feedback loops contributing to the accelerated pace of climate change are:
◦Melting ice and snow: As global temperatures rise, ice and snow melt, reducing the Earth’s reflectivity (albedo). This means more solar radiation is absorbed by the darker land and water, leading to further warming and more melting.
◦Increased water vapor: Warmer temperatures lead to increased evaporation, and water vapor is a greenhouse gas. Higher concentrations of water vapor in the atmosphere trap more heat, leading to further warming and more evaporation.
Identify some challenges that are a result of climate change
Some challenges that are a result of climate change include:
◦Increased intensity, duration, and frequency of extreme weather events like hurricanes, wildfires, and droughts.
◦Rising sea levels, leading to coastal flooding and human displacement.
◦Ocean acidification, harming marine life, particularly coral reefs.
◦Food insecurities due to drought and shifting weather patterns impacting agriculture.
◦Increased water stress.
◦Loss of biodiversity and potential mass extinctions.
