Covering Unit #1: Global Issues & Globalization Flashcards
What is the study of global studies and global issues, and how do these promote global citizens?
Global studies is the study of social, political, economic, geographic, and environmental connections in the contemporary and rapidly changing globalized world. It is multidisciplinary and relies on multiple perspectives. It seeks to develop connections between different perspectives to understand how they are related and work together, both locally and globally. This approach is necessary because global issues and societies are interconnected.
*Global issues affect large numbers of people around the world and span geographic and political boundaries.
*These issues persist over time and intensify in number and severity in response to globalization.
*Global issues are interrelated and multi-dimensional, requiring examination at all scales.
Global studies combines academics with dealing with pressing global challenges, including a call to action to improve the world, and the hope is to develop global citizens. A global citizen has an awareness of how they fit in locally and how their actions are connected globally. It helps people accept responsibility for how their local actions have global consequences and encourages active participation toward solutions.
What is globalization, what are some of the positive things it can provide, and how is it related to global issues?
Globalization is a complex web of social processes that create, intensify, and expand networks of worldwide economic, cultural, political, and technological interdependencies, exchanges, and connections. These networks increasingly overcome political, economic, cultural, and geographic boundaries. Globalization has accelerated dramatically since the 1980s.
Positive aspects of globalization:
*Initially included promoting growth and development.
*Can help move people out of poverty and has in some cases.
*The rules of globalization can be written to protect people and improve quality of life.
*Can address human rights issues.
*Can provide economic benefits, including global economic growth.
*Can establish a global rules-based system that other countries have to follow to protect those that are involved.
*Can minimize the spread of diseases and promote the development and distribution of vaccines faster when a global health crisis emerges.
*Can improve life expectancies, reduce conflict, and protect children and refugees.
*Can promote the freer movement of goods and services across borders, theoretically benefiting everyone.
Global issues have developed and magnified in response to globalization. It requires more natural resources as industrialized societies grow and demand more materials to produce more machinery and goods that are consumed. It opens up the world to accessing resources, labor, and markets in other locations.
Know the difference between IGO’s and NGO’s, not only in terms of the acronym, but also in terms of their structure and the role each plays in global governance.
IGOs (International Governmental Organizations) and NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) both play roles in addressing global issues, but they differ in structure and function
IGOs:
*An IGO is created by treaty, involving two or more nations, to work on issues of common interest.
*IGOs formed by treaties are subject to international law and can enter into enforceable agreements.
*IGOs serve as a mechanism for the world’s inhabitants to work together on peace and security and to deal with economic and social questions.
*IGOs include the United Nations, World Trade Organization (WTO), and the European Union (EU).
*IGOs can make rules and exercise power within their member countries, increasing their global impact.
*The Bretton Woods Conference in 1944 established the IMF (International Monetary Fund) and the World Bank.
◦The IMF helps regulate and stabilize currency exchange rates and promotes free trade.
◦The World Bank works to reduce poverty in middle-income and credit-worthy poorer countries by promoting sustainable development through loans, guarantees, and advising.
*The World Trade Organization (WTO), formerly known as GATT, deals with the rules of trade between nations. Nations must sign up to be a member and follow the rules set by the WTO to have access to trade between other members.
*IGOs are involved with writing the loans that are given to countries, and those short-term loans can have awful terms with high interest, difficult to pay down debt, and can force very intrusive compromising economic and political sovereignty.
NGOs:
*NGOs are often non-profit organizations working to better society and the environment.
*They are independently developed and funded and can include grass-roots organizations working to effect positive change.
*Some NGOs are international or global in scope, while others focus on local issues.
*NGOs can outline solutions to problems and organize different countries to contribute towards those solutions.
*Examples of NGOs include World Wildlife Fund, Greenpeace, Border Angels, the Environmental Health Coalition, and the San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research.
*NGOs can have tremendous influence internationally on policies and governmental decisions between nations.
*NGOs are not bound by the entrenched politics and economics of a large government and have the flexibility to focus on fewer issues.
*NGOs can influence governments around the world toward a more sustainable global approach.
Explain the role of the three major IGO’s discussed in class (IMF, World Bank, WTO), their connection to Bretton Woods, and their evolution from the initial principles laid out in 1944 vs. the post-1970s changes.
The three major International Governmental Organizations (IGOs) discussed are the IMF, the World Bank, and the WTO. These organizations were established in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference to create a system of rules, institutions, and procedures to rebuild and regulate the international economy.
Bretton Woods Conference (1944):
*The conference aimed to prevent monetary chaos and promote international collaboration after World War II.
*It sought to develop a new, open international economic system with lower tariffs and reduced barriers to trade.
*The conference laid the foundation for the IMF, the World Bank, and the GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), which later became the WTO.
*John Maynard Keynes advocated for a balanced approach with government influence alongside private sector interests.
International Monetary Fund (IMF):
*Designed to regulate and stabilize currency exchange rates and facilitate cooperation between countries on monetary policy.
*Promotes free trade by helping countries increase real incomes while lowering unemployment.
*Provides financial assistance to countries, offering credits and loans to help pay off obligations and readjust economic policies.
*Countries receiving assistance from the IMF must agree to structural adjustments, which may involve changing governmental policies to allow more corporate access and resource exploitation.
World Bank:
*Aims to reduce poverty in middle-income and credit-worthy poorer countries by promoting sustainable development through loans, guarantees, and advising.
*Involved in building infrastructure such as roads, dams, and power plants.
*Helps with natural disaster relief, humanitarian emergencies, and poverty reduction.
World Trade Organization (WTO):
*Deals with the rules of trade between nations.
*Member countries must adhere to the rules set by the WTO, gaining access to trade between other members.
*Ensures that trade flows freely, smoothly, and predictably between countries and enforces the rules of free trade.
Evolution from Initial Principles vs. Post-1970s Changes:
*Initial Kinesian Balanced Approach: The rules established at Bretton Woods aimed for a balance between government regulation and corporate interests.
*Shift to Neoliberalism: In the 1970s, the Bretton Woods system faced challenges, leading to a shift towards neoliberalism in the 1980s.
◦President Nixon abandoned the gold standard in 1971.
◦Neoliberal policies, influenced by leaders like Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan, favored downsizing government, privatizing enterprises, deregulating the economy, and expanding international markets.
*Washington Consensus: The new strategy had 10 principles, all about fiscal discipline, redirecting public spending towards education, health, and infrastructure, tax reform, that is broadening the tax base and cutting tax rates, market-determined interest rates rather than having the government establish interest rates, competitive exchange rates, trade liberalization.
Controversies and Criticisms:
◦The IMF and World Bank began implementing structural adjustment programs (SAPs) in developing countries, requiring them to reduce spending on public services, promote foreign investment, and deregulate their economies.
◦These policies led to fewer social programs, increased poverty, and environmental degradation in many countries.
◦Critics argue that free trade allows developed nations to exploit developing countries, destroying local industry and vital protections.
◦Multinational corporations (MNCs) have been accused of using international trade agreements to undermine governments’ abilities to impose safety, environmental, and wage controls.
Discontent with Globalization: People are more discontent with globalization due to the rewriting of rules favoring corporations and the wealthy elite.
◦Traditional globalization ideals focused on economic growth and viewed humans as instruments of production.
◦A more sustainable approach would include the economy, society, and the environment.
What is the difference between the Keynesian-style balanced approach to economics and Neoliberal policies?
Keynesian-Style Balanced Approach:
*This approach, championed by economist John Maynard Keynes, involves a balance between government oversight and corporate involvement in the economy.
*It supports government intervention and regulation to act as a counterbalance to economic swings.
*This approach was foundational in establishing the rules for IGOs like the IMF, World Bank, and World Trade Organization.
*The principles included international collaboration and development of a new, open international economic system.
*Aims for balanced approach between government having some rules and regulations about what you can and can’t do while still allowing corporations to come in and invest and grow.
Neoliberal Policies:
*Neoliberalism is a political movement that pairs economic liberalism with economic development and political liberty.
*It gained prominence in the 1980s with leaders like Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher.
*It portrays government control over the economy as inefficient or corrupt.
Key tenets include:
◦Downsizing government.
◦Privatizing activities previously managed by the government.
◦Deregulating the economy, reducing regulations on corporations.
◦Cutting taxes, also known as austerity measures.
◦Expanding international markets to increase trade.
◦Removing barriers to global trade, such as taxes, fees, and tariffs.
*Neoliberalism favors multinational corporations and wealthy elites in developed countries, potentially at the expense of individual workers and developing countries.
*Based on market fundamentalism, it suggests that the free market can solve all problems without government intervention.
*Neoliberal policies were carried forward by both political parties and around the world.
*The gains went to those who were already doing well, and the losses to those who were already suffering.
Shift from Keynesian to Neoliberal:
*The shift from the Keynesian approach to neoliberalism occurred in the 1970s and 1980s.
*Nixon abandoned the gold standard in the 1970s, and Reagan further pushed neoliberal policies in the 1980s.
*This transformation rewrote the rules of globalization and influenced international organizations like the IMF, World Bank, and WTO.
*The United States and other developed countries wrote those modern rules of globalization and they run the IGOs that govern its neoliberal policies.
*Initially, there were reasonable to good results for GDP in the United States, but it didn’t translate to a better situation for most workers.
Describe the neoliberal transformation of the rules of globalization, when it occurred, what the motives and goals of these policies are, who benefited and who lost, when they were incorporated into the structure of IGO’s, and how the implementation has influenced global issues. Can you define neoliberalism?
Definition of Neoliberalism:
*Neoliberalism is a political movement that combines economic liberalism with economic development and political liberty.
*It views government control over the economy as inefficient and often corrupt.
Timeline and Shift:
*The shift towards neoliberalism began in the 1970s and gained momentum in the 1980s.
*1971: President Nixon abandoned the gold standard.
*1980s: Leaders like Ronald Reagan (in the U.S.) and Margaret Thatcher (in the U.K.) strongly advocated for neoliberal policies.
*This shift marked a departure from the Keynesian-style balanced approach that had influenced the initial rules of globalization after World War II.
Motives and Goals of Neoliberal Policies:
*Promote economic liberalism, economic development and political liberty.
*Reduce government control over the economy.
*Increase the role of the free market in solving economic problems.
*Expand international markets and remove barriers to global trade.
*Market fundamentalism, the idea of having this sort of blind faith in Wall Street and the free market as a means to solve all problems.
Key Policies of Neoliberalism:
*Downsizing government.
*Privatizing public or state-owned enterprises.
*Deregulating the economy.
*Cutting taxes, implementing austerity measures.
*Expanding international markets.
*Removing barriers to global trade, such as tariffs and fees.
Beneficiaries and Losers:
Beneficiaries:
◦Multinational corporations.
◦Wealthy elites in developed countries.
Losers:
◦Individual workers everywhere.
◦The well-being of developing countries.
Incorporation into IGOs:
*The neoliberal transformation influenced the rules of IGOs like the IMF, World Bank, and WTO.
*The United States and other developed countries played a significant role in writing these modern rules of globalization and influencing the IGOs that govern its neoliberal policies.
*The new strategy of the IGOs was called the Washington Consensus.
Influence on Global Issues:
*Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs): The IMF and World Bank implemented SAPs in developing countries, requiring them to reduce spending on public services, promote foreign investment, and deregulate their economies.
*Exploitation of Developing Countries: Critics argue that free trade policies associated with neoliberalism allow developed nations to exploit developing countries, leading to the destruction of local industries and vital protections.
*Increased Poverty and Inequality: The implementation of neoliberal policies has been associated with increased poverty and environmental degradation in many countries.
*Corporate Power: Critics argue that multinational corporations have used international trade organizations and agreements to undermine governments’ abilities to impose safety, environmental, and wage controls.
*Discontent with Globalization: The rewriting of the rules of globalization to favor corporations and the wealthy elite has led to increased discontent.
*Environmental Degradation: SAPs contributed to increases in pollution and the degradation of the environment in many countries due to the removal of environmental regulations and the unbridled extraction of natural resources for foreign markets.
What are the components of GDP, and how might this economic indicator of the overall “value” of a country’s economy fall short of measuring the economic “health” of most workers within a country.
Components of GDP (Gross Domestic Product):
*National consumer spending (consumption): Includes spending on both durable and non-durable goods.
*Business investments: Business spending on machinery, software, and new construction.
*Government spending: Government expenditure on items such as military.
*Exports minus imports: The value of exports less the value of imports. A trade deficit occurs when there are more imports than exports.
Shortcomings of GDP as a Measure of Economic Health for Workers:
*Disparity between economic growth and worker well-being: GDP can increase without a corresponding improvement in the situation for most workers.
*Trade agreements favoring industrialized countries: Trade agreements may favor the U.S. and other industrialized nations over developing countries. They may also favor corporations over workers, both in advanced and poor countries.
*Traditional globalization ideals focusing on material terms: Traditional globalization ideals like GDP focus on material terms and may treat humans as capital. This approach neglects the human component and social interactions.
*Ignores exploitation of workers: Until there is better alignment between the economy, society and the environment, there will continue to be exploitation of workers.
*Neglects quality of life: GDP doesn’t account for the human element or quality of life. It is primarily a report of how well Wall Street is doing.
*Unsustainable approach: An overemphasis on GDP and material growth, without considering social and environmental factors, is unsustainable.
What is the “Washington Consensus”, the Western Approach, and Structural Adjustment?
Washington Consensus: This refers to a set of neoliberal economic policies exported to developing countries through International Governmental Organizations (IGOs). It emerged after the collapse of the Soviet Union. It is heavily influenced by the Western approach.
*The Western Approach: The Washington Consensus promotes a market liberalization, privatizing government services, fiscal austerity (getting rid of taxes), and free trade (eliminating fees and tariffs). These policies, which produced economic growth in developed countries, were then applied to developing countries.
*Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs): To receive loans from the IMF and World Bank, countries had to agree to structural adjustments. These could include rewriting governmental policies to allow more corporations to do business or opening up access to a country’s resources. SAPs involved reducing public spending, promoting foreign investment, devaluing currencies, and deregulating economies. These policies often led to fewer social programs for the poor and environmental degradation.
What are some of the discontents with Globalization?
*Globalization is often blamed for various problems, and people are more discontent with it than ever before.
*Some feel globalization is responsible for all the problems.
*Poorly designed rules or mismanaged globalization can cause discontent.
*Many activists protest economic globalization, including multinational corporations and global economic institutions like the WTO, the IMF, and the World Bank.
*Critics argue that free trade, a key component of economic globalization, allows developed nations to exploit developing countries, harming the environment and the poor.
*Free trade is also criticized for hurting developed nations by encouraging corporations to move jobs to countries with lower labor costs and weaker regulations.
*There is discontent with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.
*Some view the new rules of globalization as favoring corporations and the wealthy elite.
*Neoliberal policies, emphasizing free trade, have contributed to the globalization of trade and finance.
*Some see globalization as “corporate globalization” due to the pervasive power of multinational corporations.
*Some are discontent with the effects of Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs), implemented by the IMF and World Bank in developing countries, which led to cuts in public services and environmental deregulation.
*Centralization of production in fewer places, relying on long-distance distribution, makes food more expensive and less accessible.
*Some are discontent that seed banks are being gobbled up by a few global corporations.
*Some are discontent with corporations externalizing costs.
*As a result of discontent with globalization, in 1999, 40,000 people protested the World Trade Organization meeting in Seattle.
What are some of the possible characteristics of the “cultural paradigm shift” needed to work towards a solution to the problems with globalization?
Shift in thinking about social interactions: Solutions to global issues and problems with globalization’s current rules require a change in how we think about social interactions.
*Focus on human capability: Integrate a human-directed process of achieving freedom into the globalization approach. Value-driven change in people’s lives, maintaining the freedom to choose valued lives as the overarching goal of development.
*More human view, less economic view: Prioritize human well-being over purely economic considerations.
*Inclusion of the “people component” in assessing progress: Shift the focus of news and media to include the “human element,” beyond just economic indicators like the Dow Jones Industrial Average. Report on quality of life and human well-being.
*Acknowledge interconnectedness: Develop an awareness of how local actions have global consequences.
*Global citizenship: Develop awareness of how individuals fit in locally and how their actions connect globally.
*Accept responsibility: Take responsibility for how local actions impact global issues.
*Active participation: Engage in active participation towards solutions.
*Balance of economy, society, and environment: Work towards alignment between the economy, society, and the environment.
What is the current global population, and what are the top 3 countries (and their populations)?
The current world population is over 8 billion people.
*The top 3 most populated countries are:
◦India: Over 1.4 billion people
◦China: Over 1.4 billion people
◦United States: Over 0.3 billion (between 340 and 350 million)
Explain population change trends over the past 12,000 years, and especially in the last 1,500 years.
*8000 BCE (Before Common Era): The invention of agriculture led to a gradual increase in the world population to around 10 million, equivalent to the size of a major city today.
*Year 0: The world population slowly increased to 250 million people.
*1500 AD: Population growth was slow (2-5% per century) due to high death rates from diseases and malnutrition.
*1700s-1800s: The Industrial Revolution marked a turning point, leading to exponential population growth as advances in industry, agriculture, and transportation improved living conditions and reduced the amount of time it took for the world population to double.
*Post-World War II (after 1945): A period of explosive population growth occurred due to scientific innovation, economic activity, enhanced food production, and disease control technologies, with growth rates reaching 3-4% per year. This “super exponential” growth is considered unsustainable due to the finite resources of the planet.
*21st Century: While population growth may slow, the number of people on the planet is projected to reach 11 billion by the end of the century.
Why has the population grown, and at an accelerated rate? Explain the role of the agricultural and industrial revolutions, the post-WWII period, and the influence of changing death rates starting in the 1950s.
*Agricultural Revolution (8000 BCE): The domestication of plants and animals dramatically increased the food supply. This meant more people had the nutrition they needed, leading to a gradual acceleration of population growth. The world population was around 10 million people.
*Industrial Revolution (1700s-1800s): This period saw exponential population growth due to advances in industry, agriculture, and transportation. These advances improved living conditions.
*Post-World War II (after 1945): There was an explosive rate of population growth. This was due to:
◦Scientific innovation and economic activity
◦Enhanced food production
◦Technologies that enabled disease control
◦Modern medicine transforming how diseases were fought.
*Changing Death Rates:
◦Prior to the Industrial Revolution and especially before post-WWII innovations, high death rates from diseases and malnutrition kept population growth relatively slow.
◦Scientific innovation and economic activity, enhanced food production, and technologies that enabled disease control caused huge reduction in death rates.
◦More births than deaths resulted in explosive population growth.
◦In some countries in the late 1970s, population growth reached 3-4% per year.
How has the shift of people moving from rural to urban locations exacerbated the pressures on the planet and it’s resources? Explain the rates of movement now and in the near future of people moving into cities. Why is it that people living in a city (instead of rural) is a problem (explain and compare natural metabolic rate vs. social metabolic rate)?
*Rates of movement:
◦Currently, there are about 1 to 3 million people moving from rural to urban areas every two months.
◦This is equivalent to adding a new New York City to the planet every two months.
◦It is estimated that by 2050, 80% of the world population will be living in cities.
◦China is building 200 to 300 cities in excess of a million people within the next 15 years to accommodate this shift.
Why urbanization exacerbates resource pressures:
◦Increased demand: Shifting from rural to urban environments greatly increases the demand for energy and resources.
◦Metabolic rate increase: The average person’s energy consumption rises dramatically when they move to a city.
Natural vs. Social Metabolic Rate:
▪Natural Metabolic Rate: In a rural setting, a person’s metabolic rate and energy consumption is around 100 watts, which includes the energy from the food they eat and possibly a little extra for heating.
▪Social Metabolic Rate: In a city, the energy consumption increases to around 11,000 watts per person. This increase is due to the additional energy demands of city life, such as infrastructure, transportation, and technology.
Specific examples of increased energy demand in cities:
◦Infrastructure: The energy required to build and maintain roads, extract resources, and manufacture materials.
◦Daily life: Energy for lights, air conditioning, and charging electronic devices.
◦Physical infrastructure: This includes all aspects of city life, such as roads.
Why are cities both the solution and the problem?
Cities as the Problem:
◦Source of problems: Cities are a source of major problems.
◦Increased energy demand: The shift from rural to urban environments greatly increases the demand for energy and resources.
◦High energy consumption: People living in cities have a much higher social metabolic rate (11,000 watts) compared to those in rural settings (100 watts). This is due to the energy required for infrastructure, transportation, and daily life in cities.
◦Environmental impact: The construction and maintenance of urban infrastructure, such as roads and buildings, require significant energy and resource extraction.
◦Population: Cities, like San Diego, are the source of many problems.
Cities as the Solution:
◦Social networks: Cities provide social networks of people, ideas, and innovation that can create solutions to problems.
◦Innovation: Cities foster social interactions that bring about new ideas, innovation, and wealth.
◦Efficiency: Larger cities can be more efficient with less pollution per person.
◦Wealth creation: Social interactions in cities bring about new ideas, innovation, and wealth.
◦Problem solving: Cities have intelligent people who can facilitate those interactions and innovate to solve global issues.
◦Resource for solutions: Cities, like San Diego, provide ideas and innovation that can create solutions to problems.
What is a finite time singularity, how have we avoided catastrophic collapse in the past, and why won’t the strategy of the past continue to work? What is the importance and role of innovation relative to unbounded growth?
Finite Time Singularity:
◦The finite time singularity is the notion that humanity is approaching a point at which nothing conventional will work in its ability to continue functioning the way it does, living in big cities and demanding lots of energy while extracting more resources from a finite planet.
◦There’s a limit to this model of growth, and when humanity approaches that limit, it will either have a new reality defined by nature or it can recognize and innovate solutions before that happens.
◦The big question is whether humanity will innovate solutions or if nature’s corrections within the systems will determine a new course.
How Catastrophic Collapse Has Been Avoided in the Past:
◦Innovation: Each time humanity innovates new solutions, it buys itself more time.
Why Past Strategies Won’t Continue to Work:
◦Decreasing time: The amount of time that innovation buys gets shorter.
◦Accelerating cycles: Humanity cannot continue forever with exponential population growth and expect that innovations will continue to be the way out of difficult situations.
◦Faster innovation required: Humanity has to innovate faster and faster each time.
◦Systemic cultural paradigm shift required: Innovations must encompass a full-scale systemic cultural paradigm shift, requiring new ways of thinking about how people live and interact with the planet.
◦Natural responses: As humanity approaches a finite time singularity, it approaches a point at which nothing conventional works and a new reality is defined. That reality could be defined by natural responses to the accelerating pressures on earth systems, resulting in the ultimate collapse of civilization.
◦Alternative reality: The new reality could also be defined by humanity making use of the solutions already available in a systemic cultural paradigm shift.
Importance and Role of Innovation Relative to Unbounded Growth:
◦Unbounded growth requires accelerating cycles of innovation to avoid collapse.
◦Humanity has a limited amount of time to innovate drastic solutions to address global issues like climate change, or it will face dire consequences.
◦Solutions require new ideas: Those solutions definitely require new ideas.
◦Faster life: Life gets faster and the time between innovations gets shorter as humanity continues this super exponential growth with increasing numbers of global issues in increasing severity.
◦Cities as the solution: Cities provide social networks of people, ideas, and innovation that can create solutions to problems.
◦Cities facilitate interactions: Cities have intelligent people who can facilitate social interactions and innovate to solve global issues.
What will it take for humans to determine the future outcome, vs. natural Earth systems corrections defining it?
*Systemic Cultural Paradigm Shift: Innovations must encompass a full-scale systemic cultural paradigm shift, requiring new ways of thinking about how people live and interact with the planet.
*Rapid Innovation: Humanity needs to innovate faster and faster each time to address global issues.
*Addressing Global Issues: There is a limited amount of time to innovate drastic solutions to address global issues like climate change, or humanity will face dire consequences.
*Recognize Limits: Acknowledge that there’s a limit to the current model of growth, and humanity is either going to innovate solutions or nature will correct the systems.
*New Ideas: Solutions will definitely require new ideas.
*Full-Scale Global Approach: Solving global issues is going to necessitate a full-scale global approach.
*Global Citizenship: Engage in active participation towards solutions and accept some responsibility for how local actions have global consequences.
Explain the juxtaposition of plenty of food currently for every person on planet Earth compared to the current 1 billion who are malnourished. How will that change in the near future? How will climate change further challenge the sustainability of our current food system?
Current Food Availability vs. Malnutrition:
◦Enough food is produced to provide everyone on Earth with over 2,000 calories a day.
◦However, over a billion people are malnourished, lacking either sufficient calories or necessary nutrition.
◦This equates to 1 in 7.7 people globally.
Reasons for Food Insecurity Despite Sufficient Production:
◦Centralization of production: Food production is concentrated in fewer places, relying on long-distance distribution, increasing costs and reducing accessibility.
◦Food being used for animals and biofuel: Food is diverted to animal feed and biofuel production rather than direct human consumption.
◦Poor access to food: Conflict prevents food from reaching areas where it’s needed.
◦Food waste: A significant amount of food is wasted at production, retail, and consumer levels.
◦Rising food costs: Growing insecurities in food stem from rising food costs.
Changes in the Near Future:
◦Population growth: By 2050, the world population is projected to increase by 2 billion, requiring as much food production in the next 32 years as in the previous 8 to 10,000 years. Projections estimate upwards of 11 billion people by 2100.
Challenges of Climate Change to the Food System:
◦Impacts on food production: More intense and frequent droughts, flooding, and severe weather challenge the ability to sustain current food production levels.
◦Agricultural productivity declines: Climate change is expected to cause huge declines in the ability to produce food, especially in key agricultural regions.
◦Water Scarcity: Climate change will cause longer, more intense, and more frequent droughts.
What are the main types of food being produced (top 3 in-terms of quantity), how much does that represent in-terms of calories consumed, and what is the proportion of those calories consumed by people vs. animal agriculture vs. biofuels?
Top 3 Foods Produced (by quantity):
◦Corn:
◦Wheat:
◦Rice:
Calories Consumed:
◦These three foods together make up 60% of all the calories consumed on planet Earth by humans.
Proportion of Consumption:
◦Most of the corn and soybean produced is fed to animals to produce meat and dairy for animal agriculture.
◦In 2011, 40% of the U.S. corn crop was used for ethanol, meaning it was diverted to fuel production.
◦The source specifies “most” corn and soybean is used for animal agriculture, and 40% of the U.S. corn crop went to ethanol in 2011, however, the sources do not contain the specific proportion of the top three foods consumed by people vs. animal agriculture vs. biofuels.
How much food is produced by the big farms and multi-national corporations compared to most small farms (what %)?
Less than 2% of the farms that exist on the planet produce more than 50% of the global food supply.
*Most farms are small and owned by individual families, particularly in rural and developing countries. However, even though most farms are small, more than 50% of the global food supply is produced by less than 2% of farms.
*Four multinational corporations control more than 75% of the global grain trade: These corporations are Cargo, ADM, Bung, and Dryfus.
Be able to explain the “how” of production as discussed in lecture, in-terms of the focus and the role of technology, concentration of production, and subsidies.
*Focus: The goal of industrialized food production is to produce more and profit more, and to do it faster.
*Role of Technology:
◦Technology enhances the ability of the industrialized food system to produce more and profit more.
◦Examples of technology enhancing profit and production are the mechanization of planting and harvesting, the use of artificial fertilizers, and the use of pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides.
◦Genetic modification of plants is also used as a way to enhance production.
◦Antibiotics and hormones enable concentrated livestock production while protecting them from diseases.
Concentration of Production:
◦Industrialized food production focuses on concentrating production with a limited variety of food types.
◦This results in mega-factories in the field producing a monocrop (single type of plant) across many square miles.
Subsidies:
◦Government subsidies and taxpayer funding help minimize losses and guarantee agribusinesses a reasonable price for their crop, regardless of what happens, which does not encourage sustainability.
◦Subsidies for corn and soybean influence food accessibility.
◦The source suggests that subsidies should be directed towards foods that provide a broader range of nutrition, rather than those that cost the environment, energy, water and natural resources more.
◦Government incentives help provide access to resources without provisions for protecting the environment or having sustainability, with the costs ultimately being externalized.
Explain the problems with food prices, not only in-terms of increases in prices over time and the effects of that on food insecurities, but also how subsidies have influenced the cost of certain types of foods and the problems with that.
*Increases in Food Prices Over Time:
◦Global food prices have doubled between 2004 and the time of the lecture.
◦Rising food costs contribute to growing food insecurities.
Effects on Food Insecurities:
◦Rising food prices worsen food insecurities.
◦With higher prices, people may not get the calories they need or the nutrition they need.
*Influence of Subsidies on the Cost of Certain Foods:
◦Subsidies for corn and soybean influence food accessibility.
◦Government subsidies for corn and soybean mean that those ingredients become cheaper and more accessible than other products that might be healthier.
◦This contributes to obesity, diabetes, and poor nutrition.
◦Sweets and beverages can cost less per calorie than meat, poultry, fresh fruits, and vegetables.
◦The source suggests that subsidies should be directed towards foods that provide a broader range of nutrition, rather than those that cost the environment, energy, water and natural resources more.
◦Currently, subsidies are supporting cheaper options that cost the environment, energy, water and natural resources more.
Externalized costs:
◦Government subsidies and incentives help provide access to resources without provisions for protecting the environment or having sustainability, with the costs ultimately being externalized.
Other Considerations
◦Diverting food to fuel means increased food prices, ultimately contributing to the food insecurities.
How has food diversity changed in the last 100 years and what is the problem with the level of diversity in our current industrialized food system?
Decline in Food Diversity:
◦Going back a century to the early 1900s, there was a high level of food diversity, with many different varieties of each type of food being grown.
◦Over the last 100 years, there has been a drastic drop in food diversity.
◦Only a few varieties of each item are being grown in much greater quantities today.
◦93% of seed varieties in US seed banks back in 1903 are extinct.
Limited Number of Plant Species Used for Food:
◦There are over 50,000 edible plant species on Earth.
◦However, only 15 plant species are used for 90% of the food produced.
Problems with the Lack of Diversity in the Industrialized Food System:
◦Vulnerability: Concentrating the majority of food production on only a few plant species creates great vulnerability.
◦Risk of Crop Decimation: The Irish potato famine illustrates the danger of relying on only one or two varieties of a crop, as a single disease can wipe out the entire crop, leading to dramatic loss of life.
◦Precarious Situation: The concentration of production in only a few species has resulted in a very precarious situation.
◦Reduced Nutrition: Limited plant diversity reduces the spectrum of nutrition.
◦Loss of resilience: A food system with limited diversity is less resilient to pests and disease.
Who holds most of the world’s seeds now, and how has that changed over the last 100 years?
Seed Control: As of 2011, 75% of the world’s seed market was controlled by the world’s top 10 seed companies.
*Shift from Local Seed Banks to Corporations:
◦Farmers used to save their own crop seeds for the next year, and trade with local seed banks.
◦Big corporations like Monsanto (now owned by Bayer), DuPont, and others bought out these local seed banks and started to control the seed supply.
Genetic Modification and Patents:
◦These corporations started genetically modifying seeds, leading to patents.
◦The patents gave them ownership rights to the seeds.
Loss of Genetic Diversity:
◦There was a major loss of genetic diversity due to the shift of seed banks being acquired by a few global corporations.
*Terminal Seeds: GMO seeds were also made terminal, meaning that you could only grow it for one year, and you were forced to buy new seeds every single year.
What are GMO’s, and what are some of the issues with certain GMO foods, including the addition of seed patents?
Definition of GMOs:
◦GMO stands for genetically modified organisms.
◦GMO seeds were created with the idea that they would promise more yield, allowing for greater production in less time and area.
◦GMOs can be genetically modified to be resistant to mold, fungus, pests, drought, or even pesticides or herbicides.
Issues with GMO Foods:
◦Competition for Non-GMO Farmers: Non-GMO farmers could not compete with the increased production and yields of GMO crops and were eventually forced to buy GMO seeds to stay competitive.
◦Pollen Contamination: Non-GMO farmers could be susceptible to pollen from GMO fields blowing onto their farms, leading to lawsuits from companies like Monsanto.
◦Terminal Seeds: GMO seeds were often made terminal, meaning that they could only be grown for one year, forcing farmers to buy new seeds every year.
◦Food Safety: There are questions about food safety and the effects on the environment when genetically modifying organisms.
Seed Patents:
◦Privatization: Seeds have become privatized over time and even patented.
◦Control: As of 2011, 75% of the world’s seed market was controlled by the world’s top 10 seed companies.
◦Loss of Diversity: Major loss of genetic diversity occurred as a result of seed banks being bought up by global corporations.
◦Control and Cost: Big corporations like Monsanto bought out local seed banks, started controlling the seed supply, and then genetically modified these seeds, which led to patents, providing ownership rights to the seed and increased costs.
◦Dependence: Seed patents and genetic modification has led to farmers being forced to be dependent on corporations like Monsanto.
What are the production costs (both in-terms of resources and the environment) of an industrialized agricultural food system and why aren’t those costs often incorporated into the price of foods?
Resource Costs of Industrialized Agriculture:
◦Land: Requires huge amounts of land.
◦Water: Requires huge amounts of water.
◦Nutrients: Requires tremendous amounts of extra nutrients, either in the form of fertile land or fertilizers.
◦Energy: Takes massive amounts of energy, including oil to run machinery, distribute food, and store food.
◦Labor: Requires tremendous amounts of labor, which is often exploited.
◦Infrastructure: Requires a huge amount of infrastructure, such as roads, railways, highways, shipping ports, machinery, and warehouses.
◦Limited Variety: Relies on a concentration of production with a very limited variety of food types.
Environmental Costs of Industrialized Agriculture:
◦Air Pollution: The industrial food production system does not pay to mitigate air pollution.
◦Water Pollution: Runoff from agriculture introduces contaminants into waterways.
◦Overconsumption of Water: Drawing more water out of rivers leads to less water downstream in natural ecosystems.
◦Transportation Impacts: Moving products around the planet affects the environment.
◦Loss of Biodiversity: Natural rainforest is destroyed and replaced with a single crop.
◦Loss of Natural Habitat: Natural habitats are destroyed, such as cutting down the Amazon rainforest.
◦Soil Degradation: Removing forests results in soil erosion and degradation.
◦Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The system depends heavily on fossil fuels and releases large amounts of greenhouse gas emissions, both from equipment and animal agriculture.
Why These Costs Aren’t Incorporated into Food Prices:
◦Externalized Costs: Most of the environmental and resource costs are externalized and not paid by the agricultural system that produces the food.
◦Exploited Workers: Workers who lack healthcare may pay out of pocket for medical bills.
◦Affected Communities: Nearby communities may suffer from air and water pollution, leading to higher health costs.
◦Government Subsidies: Government subsidies and incentives help provide access to resources without provisions for protecting the environment or having sustainability.
◦Market-Driven Decisions: In some cases, food is wasted due to market prices, where it is more profitable to discard the food than to harvest or sell it.
Examples of Externalized Costs:
◦Tomatoes can be sold at low prices, but the full costs of production, harvesting, and distribution are not reflected in the price.
◦Hamburgers at fast-food restaurants are sold at prices lower than the actual cost of production.
◦One pound T-bone steaks can be sold for a low price despite the high environmental and resource costs.
What are some of the different aspects of food waste and how is this contributing to food insecurities? What would a more balanced approach to an “eco-ag” system include?
Aspects of Food Waste:
*Levels of Food Waste:
◦Production: In wealthier countries, food is wasted at the production level (e.g., discarding imperfect strawberries in the field).
◦Retail: Food is discarded at the retail level if it sits on the shelf too long or if too much is ordered.
◦Consumer: Food is wasted at the consumer level when it’s forgotten in the fridge and eventually thrown away.
◦Harvesting and Processing Challenges: Developing countries face waste due to a lack of harvesting technologies, processing issues, and challenges in clean and cold storage.
◦Market-driven waste: Food that is discarded instead of sent to market because the prices aren’t high enough.
Quantity of Food Waste:
◦It’s estimated that 30 to 40 percent of food globally is wasted before it reaches people’s stomachs.
Examples of Market-Driven Waste:
◦Carrots being plowed under instead of harvested because the warehouses were full and the carrots got too big to fit into the plastic sacks.
Waste at the Retail Level:
◦Tremendous waste is part of the big retail system because all the food has to keep moving.
Contribution to Food Insecurities:
*Centralization of Production: Food production is increasingly concentrated in fewer places, relying on long-distance distribution, making it more expensive and less accessible.
*Food Used for Other Purposes: Food is being fed to animals or used for biofuel instead of being consumed directly by people.
*Poor Access to Food: Conflict can prevent food from moving across borders or through areas where it’s needed.
*Rising Food Costs: Rising food costs coupled with waste lead to great global food insecurities, with people not getting enough calories or the nutrients they need.
*Imbalance: Enough food is being produced for everyone to have more than 2,000 calories a day, and yet over a billion people aren’t getting the food they need.
Balanced Approach to an “Eco-Ag” System:
*Balance of Production Outputs: The goal is to have enough food production for people to have the food they need.
*Focus on Biodiversity: To create a system that is more resilient, resistant to pests and diseases, and that provides a greater spectrum of nutrients for people.
*Conservation: Includes conservation of soil, energy, and water to allow for natural ecosystems to coexist with food production.
*Diversified Nutrition: Providing greater options that are accessible to more people.
*Improved Livelihood: These elements in a balanced food production system can provide the potential to continue to provide food globally for current and future populations, even in the face of climate change.
Which sources of energy are from fossil fuels, which are considered “dirty” energy sources, and what are the so-called “green” energy sources?
Fossil Fuels (and Dirty Energy Sources):
◦Oil
◦Coal
◦Natural Gas
◦Biofuels: Biofuels are also considered “dirty” energy sources because burning them releases greenhouse gasses like CO2. The other three are fossil fuels, made of decayed organic matter buried for many years.
So-called “Green” Energy Sources
◦Nuclear
◦Hydro Power
◦Geothermal Power
◦Wind Power
◦Solar
What are some of the things that influence energy consumption?
*Efficiency of Appliances and Machinery: Innovations that make things more efficient over time can reduce consumption.
*Vehicle Fuel Efficiency: More efficient vehicles with better gas mileage or hybrid designs can reduce energy consumption.
*Transportation Options: Efficient transportation options like buses, light rail, bicycle commuting infrastructure, and pedestrian mobility can provide alternatives that consume less energy.
*Global Population Increase: The more people there are, the more energy is needed.
*Shift from Rural to Urban: Moving from rural environments (consuming around 100 watts) to urban settings (consuming around 11,000 watts) dramatically increases energy consumption.
*Technology Use: Technology can both improve and reduce consumption, or increase it, depending on its purpose.
*Drought: During droughts, importing water from far away to meet needs requires significant energy.
*Climate Extremes: Extreme weather events, such as heat waves or cold spells, can increase the use of heaters and air conditioners.
*Energy Consciousness: Being aware of the importance of conserving energy can influence decisions and reduce consumption.
*Consumer Choices: Making conscious choices about energy consumption can have a big impact.
*Wealth: Wealthier countries tend to consume more energy per person.
Considering coal and oil, which countries that are the biggest producers are also the biggest importers (indicating that they are among the biggest consumers)?
Oil:
◦The United States is the number three producer of oil in the world, but it does not appear in the top five exporters. At the same time, the United States is the number one importer of oil in the world. This suggests that the United States consumes most of the oil it produces and imports a lot of oil from other places. The United States is the biggest consumer of oil in the world.
Coal:
◦China is the number one producer and consumer of coal. China produces almost half of the world’s total coal supply. China is also the number one importer of coal. This indicates that China’s consumption of coal is so large that it needs to import coal in addition to being the top producer.
What is the big problem with energy subsidies when considering the need to shift away from “dirty” energy sources and towards “green” energy sources?
*Misaligned Incentives: Despite the recognized need to move away from fossil fuels to address climate change, subsidies primarily support oil, natural gas, and, to a lesser extent, coal.
*Disproportionate Support: Global fossil fuel subsidies topped $260 billion in 2016, whereas incentives for solar, wind, and other renewable energy sources only totaled $140 billion. This means that there are greater incentives to consume and produce “dirty” energy than “green” energy.
*Inhibited Progress: Until governments reduce incentives for “dirty” energy and increase incentives for renewable sources, progress toward a more sustainable future will be limited.
What are some of the challenges with the implementation of wind and solar farms vs. other forms of installation (such as roof-top solar)? What are some of the “hidden” environmental impacts of wind and solar energy?
Location:
◦Subsidies tend to favor big utility companies building massive solar projects in the desert and in remote places.
◦These installations require disturbing public lands and natural resources and habitats.
◦There are huge environmental costs to constructing a solar farm in the desert.
◦Desert ecosystems are threatened by the rapid expansion of both wind and solar farms.
◦Installing in the desert leads to major loss of habitat of species and ecosystems.
◦Wind farms are often put in the desert and in natural environments with ecosystems, creating great disturbance.
◦Grading the landscape to build roads to access wind turbines can lead to soil erosion.
Variability:
◦Wind and regular sunshine are not available everywhere and not all the time.
◦Energy from these sources is variable.
◦There are challenges to energy reliability when it’s sourced from solar and wind, especially when it’s being fed into a larger energy grid or network that depends on consistent 24-hour supply of energy.
Other Impacts:
◦Bird impacts with propellers are a common occurrence in wind farms.
◦There’s also noise pollution.
Rooftop and Urban Solar Benefits
*Already Disturbed Environment: Moving into the urban landscape means building in an already disturbed environment.
*Proximity: Energy being generated goes right into the equipment and the energy needs and the demands immediately surrounding it.
*Less Energy Loss: There’s very little distance that energy has to travel from panels in the urban environment to the machinery and the equipment and the things that consume that energy.
*Shade: Parking lots are a great place to park in the shade underneath the panels.
“Hidden” Environmental Impacts of Wind and Solar Energy
*Habitat Loss: Installing solar farms in natural habitats has huge environmental costs.
*Ecosystem Disturbance: Rapid expansion of wind and solar farms threatens desert ecosystems.
*Soil Erosion: Grading the landscape to build roads to access and service wind turbines can lead to soil erosion.
*Bird and Animal Deaths: Propellers in wind farms can cause bird deaths.
*Visual Impact: Large-scale wind and solar farms can alter the appearance of landscapes, which is considered by some to be a negative environmental impact.
*Noise Pollution: Wind farms are noisy and the low whooshing sounds that they make can “drive you crazy”.
If there is plenty of freshwater available for everyone, then why are water issues such a serious global issue?
*Uneven Distribution: Water is not evenly distributed, with large portions located where human demand is low, such as the Amazon basin or Canada.
*Rainfall Patterns: Rainfall can be brief and intense, making it hard to capture and store for year-round use.
*Lack of Infrastructure: Developing countries often lack the infrastructure needed to capture and store surface water, which can be too difficult to capture and store sometimes.
*Population Growth and Increased Water Use: The population is growing, and people are using more water, with water use multiplying six-fold while the population tripled.
*Arid Regions Maximizing Water Use: Many arid regions, such as the Middle East, Western United States, and South Africa, are already using 80 to 90% of their available water supply.
*Climate Change: Climate change is creating more severe, longer, and more frequent droughts, challenging the sustainability of water use in some regions.
*Variability in Water Flow: Variability in water flow demands massive infrastructure to protect people from floods and store water, but many regions cannot afford this infrastructure.
*Aging Infrastructure: Existing water infrastructure is old and not designed to handle the increased variability in weather patterns caused by climate change.
*Impacts of Dams: Dams, while providing water storage and hydropower, can disrupt the natural flow of water and sand, impacting coastlines and fish migration.
*Water Usage: 70% of water goes to agriculture, and 20% goes to industry. Almost 90% of the water taken out of the Colorado River is used for irrigation, and 25% of that water is used for alfalfa, cotton and irrigated pasture irrigation.
*Groundwater Depletion: Heavy reliance on groundwater can lead to depletion of aquifers, as seen with the Ogallala aquifer in the Midwestern United States.
*Water Privatization: Water privatization can lead to increased costs and reduced access to free sources of clean water.
What are the main renewable sources of freshwater available for withdrawl. How are those sources withdrawn?
*Surface water: This involves taking water out of streams, rivers, and lakes.
*Groundwater: This involves pumping water out of the ground. The water often resides in groundwater aquifers, where it is trapped beneath an impermeable layer.
What are some of the challenges with freshwater withdrawal?
*Uneven Distribution: A large portion of the total available water is located where human demand is small, such as in the Amazon basin or Canada.
*Rainfall Patterns: Rainfall can be brief but intense, making it hard to capture and store for year-round use.
*Lack of Infrastructure: Developing countries often lack the necessary infrastructure to capture and store surface water.
*Population Growth and Increased Water Use: As the population grows, so does the demand for water. Also, the existing population is using more water.
*Arid Regions Maximizing Water Use: Many arid regions are already using a high percentage of their available water supply.
*Climate Change: Climate change creates more severe, longer, and more frequent droughts, challenging the sustainability of water use in some regions.
*Variability in Water Flow: This demands massive infrastructure to protect people from floods and store water, but many regions cannot afford it.
*Impacts of Dams: Dams can disrupt the natural flow of water and sand, impacting coastlines and fish migration.
*Groundwater Depletion: Heavy reliance on groundwater can lead to depletion of aquifers. Large pumps can draw down the water table, leaving smaller pumps dry.
*Water Privatization: This can lead to increased costs and reduced access to free sources of clean water.
How does water infrastructure negatively impact the environment, and why is it (for some regions) critical to have such infrastructure to maintain a stable and reliable water supply while protecting people as well?
Negative Environmental Impacts of Water Infrastructure
*Dams
◦Dams can disrupt the natural flow of water and sand. This impacts coastlines by stopping the flow of sand that creates beaches.
◦Dams obstruct fish migration and spawning. Although fish ladders can be installed, these don’t work as well as natural river systems.
Energy Consumption
◦Moving water through pumping stations and aqueducts requires tremendous amounts of energy. The energy required to pump water adds to the costs of resources and energy required.
*Groundwater Depletion: Heavy pumping of groundwater can deplete aquifers, potentially leaving smaller pumps dry.
*Water Pollution: Runoff from agriculture introduces pollutants into waterways.
Why Water Infrastructure is Critical for Some Regions
*Capture and Storage: In areas with brief, intense rainfall, infrastructure like dams is needed to capture and store water for year-round use. Without infrastructure, the water needed for the year may be lost.
*Water Supply: Dams are critical for developing a water supply that can feed thirsty regions.
*Water Transfer: Water infrastructure makes it possible to move water across long distances.
*Flood Control: Water infrastructure protects people from floods.
*Hydropower: Dams generate hydropower.
*Clean Water Supply: Water infrastructure maintains a clean water supply.
*Arid climate sustainability: For arid areas, water infrastructure might be the only way to supply the population with water.
*Drinking water access: Water infrastructure, including piping and reservoirs, can provide clean drinking water access to the cities.
What are some examples of how global water issues are becoming more severe with climate change?
Increased Drought Intensity, Duration, and Frequency: Climate change is leading to more severe, longer, and more frequent droughts.
*Strained Water Supplies: In regions already using most of their available water, climate change threatens the sustainability of water use. For example, with half of California’s population depending on a limited water supply, longer and more frequent droughts put into question the ability to sustain that population.
*Infrastructure Challenges: Existing water infrastructure is not designed to handle the increased variability in weather patterns, such as more rain in the winter instead of snow.
*Water Quality: Climate change can affect water quality, with increased temperatures potentially leading to the proliferation of harmful algae blooms and decreased oxygen levels in water bodies, impacting aquatic ecosystems and human water supplies.
*Sea Level Rise: Although not directly addressed in the sources, it is important to consider that rising sea levels can contaminate freshwater sources in coastal areas, making them unusable for drinking or irrigation. This is not from the sources, so it is recommended that you verify this information independently.
*Extreme Weather Events: While not explicitly stated, it can be inferred that the intensification of extreme weather events, such as floods and hurricanes, can damage water infrastructure and disrupt water supplies. This is not from the sources, so it is recommended that you verify this information independently.
What are the three main categories of human uses of water and how much water goes to each as a percentage? How does animal agriculture contribute to excess water consumption?
Agriculture: 70% of water is used for agriculture.
*Industry: 20% of water is used for industrial purposes.
*Municipalities: 10% of water is used by municipalities for urban use, such as residential watering and household use.
Animal agriculture contributes to excess water consumption in the following ways:
*Water-Intensive Feed Crops: A significant portion of water is used to irrigate crops like alfalfa and cotton, which are primarily used as feed for livestock.
*Inefficient Protein Conversion: Producing meat, especially beef, requires significantly more water compared to other food sources. For example, it takes 15,500 liters of water to produce one kilogram of beef, while only 500 liters of water are needed to produce one kilogram of corn. Additionally, 40 calories of energy are required to produce one calorie of beef protein, compared to a two-to-one ratio for soy.
*Water pollution: Water pollution results from runoff from animal agriculture.
What are a few key issues that surround the privatization of water, and the consumption of bottled water in general?
*Increased Costs: Privatization of water sources leads to companies buying up water supplies and selling it at a profit, which results in people paying more for water.
*Reduced Access to Free Water: Privatization reduces access to free sources of clean water as companies buy up municipal water sources.
*High Markups: Bottled water is sold at incredibly high markups compared to municipal water, despite often being sourced from the same municipal water supply. For example, a pallet of water from the city of San Diego would cost $2.64, but Nestle can sell the same amount of water for $623, and Walmart can charge $1,925.
*Clever Marketing: People are willing to spend huge amounts of money on bottled water due to clever marketing that sells “caring” and “goodness” rather than just water.
*Resource Intensive: The production of bottled water requires more water than what is simply contained in the bottle. One liter of Nestle water requires 1.94 liters of water to produce due to processing, packaging, and cleaning.
*Profiteering: Companies profit more, and people are paying more for water.
*Water Waste: The flow of water from the source to the consumer has to be “seamless” in an industrialized food system, or it leads to preservation challenges that lead to waste.
What are some steps that can contribute towards solutions to global water issues?
*Desalination: Using desalination to get water from the ocean and then running it through a process to pull out the salts to turn it into drinking water.
*Conservation:
◦Urban water conservation through low-flow shower heads, low-flow toilets, low-flow sprinklers.
◦Replacing lawns with drought-tolerant native landscaping.
◦Conserving agricultural water use, including potentially growing water-intensive crops in more humid climates.
*Smart Growth: Promoting development in ways that conserve water, and thinking about what locations might be better suited for growth.
*Refilling stations: Providing refilling stations, so people have an easier way to refill their own bottles as opposed to having to buy bottled water.
These steps, along with a big picture approach, can contribute to addressing global water issues.
