counterfactual thinking

Question 1

what are counterfactual thoughts?

Answer 1

= mental simulations of possible outcomes that didn’t happen but can be imagined as having occurred

Question 2

upward counterfactuals

Answer 2

• thinking about better possible outcomes
• ‘if only’ e.g. silver medalist wanting gold
• outcome improvement

Question 3

downward counterfactuals

Answer 3

• thinking about worst possible outcomes
• ‘at least’ e.g. bronze medalist relieved they didn’t get 4th
• affect improvement

Question 4

why do we make counterfactuals?

Answer 4

• think about better realities to work towards
• think about worse situations to not feel as bad
• adaptive function

Question 5

self-motive model

Answer 5

• generally make counterfactuals when less satisfied
• motivational consequences
• upward: feel worse but enhance intentions
• downward: restores positive sense of self

Question 6

functional theory

Answer 6

• if primary function is problem solving, counterfactual thinking should be activated by problems and evoke behaviours to fix
• upward: considered functional when highlight how to improve but only applies when likelihood for opportunity to change and seen as under actor’s control
• content-specific: intentions, specific actions and outcomes, easier to implement than general e.g. don’t text before catching train
• content-neutral: motives, mindsets, actions more generally to change future outcomes e.g. always do the shopping earlier

Question 7

assimilation

Answer 7

-identifying with the alternative reality, makes it more real and can be more motivating
upward assimilation: hope, inspiration
downward assimilation: fear, worry

Question 8

contrast

Answer 8

• distance from alternative reality
• upward contrast: disappointment, sadness
• downward contrast: relief, satisfaction - shield self from threatening thoughts, restore mood
• motivation decreases with downward contrast

Question 9

cognitive dissonance

Answer 9

• 2 or more cognitions are inconsistent and experience unpleasant psychological tension (negative emotion)
• this is really motivating

Question 10

pangloss effect

Answer 10

downward affective contrast –> pangloss effect (best of all possible worlds) - positive emotion leads to no motivation for improvement

Question 11

downward counterfactuals and motivation

Answer 11

-when downward counterfactuals evoke negative emotions they can serve as a wake-up call to change behaviour

Question 12

additive counterfactuals

Answer 12

• stimulate something that could have happened e.g. ‘if only i had my umbrella’
• more easily remembered when something similar occurs
• more frequent when event involves unexpected task failure e.g. not catching train
• can facilitate thinking and discovery mindset

Question 13

subtractive counterfactuals

Answer 13

• taking something away e.g. ‘if only i hadn’t done that’
• more frequent when event involves unexpected success - if i hadn’t worked so hard i wouldn’t have got a first
• can facilitate analytic thinking and problem solving
• might make it easier to link action to outcome

Question 14

procrastination and counterfactual thinking

Answer 14

• short term mood repair
• procrastination related to making more downward counterfactuals - self-enhancement via mood repair
• pangloss effect
• lack of motivation to change behaviour

Question 15

upward counterfactuals and control

Answer 15

• upward are more likely to focus on controllable aspects of events
• may be used for people to restore control e.g. depressed people
• controllable counterfactuals enhances control for less depressed but depletes it for severely depressed

Question 16

depressive attribution style

Answer 16

• internal: attribute negative events to internal causes
• stable: believes cause of negative events is stable across time
• global: cause of event is stable across situations

Question 17

self-compassion

Answer 17

responding to yourself in positive way when faliures

• people with higher levels are more motivated to change
• health behaviours via healthy emotion regulation

Question 18

emotion regulation

Answer 18

the set of automatic and controlled processes involved in initiation, maintenance and modification of the occurence, intensity and duration of feeling states
-can involve downward regulation of negative states or upward of positive
process model of emotion regulation:
-antecendent-focused processes: occur before emotional response is generated
-response-focused processes: occur after emotional response is generated

Question 19

just world beliefs

Answer 19

general beliefs about justice and deservingness

• strong believers in JWBs respond with more positive emotions to negative outcomes
• procedural JWBs: dispositional tendencies to perceive procedures as being deserved by others
• distributive JWBs: dispositional tendencies to perceive outcomes as being deserved by others

Question 20

near misses

Answer 20

• more frustrating e.g. missing train by 30 seconds rather than 30 mins/ Brexit party narrow margin
• upward counterfactuals: not functional when there is nothing you can change
• downward: at least brexit doesn’t happen for 2 years

Question 21

uncontrollable counterfactuals

Answer 21

• downward: serve adaptive mood regulating when uncontrollable non-repeatable events
• upward: can have negative effect however might inspire some to be more politically involved
• individual differences e.g. JWBs and self-compassion may be protective for well-being as fewer upward counterfactuals