Core Studies - Cognitive Area

Question 1

What is the cognitive area?

Answer 1

The cognitive area focuses on internal mental processes such as thinking, memory and attention.

Question 2

What is another feature of the cognitive area?

Answer 2

The computer analogy - we can compare the human mind to the computer, where we input info rate via senses, store information and output information.

Question 3

What is schema?

Answer 3

Schema are mental representations of objects or events based on previous experiences.

Question 4

What is Barlett’s theory on reconstructive memory?

Answer 4

Barlett’s theory of reconstructive memory says that we fill in the gaps in our memory using schema, so our memory is often a reconstruction of actual events.

Question 5

What is a leading question and how can this distort witnesses memories?

Answer 5

A leading question is a question that encourages the answer wanted. There are cases of innocent people being convicted on the basis of the eyewitness testimony that have later been released when DNA evidence proved them to be innocent. Leading questions can distort witness memory.

Question 6

What is the aim of Loftus and Palmer’s study?

Answer 6

To see if leading questions affects participants’ speed estimates.

Question 7

What was the research method and design of loftus and palmer’s study?

Answer 7

Research method - Laboratory experiment as IV was manipulated and DV was measured under controlled conditions.

Experimental design - independent measures as different groups.

Question 8

What was the sample in Loftus and Palmer’s study?

Answer 8

• opportunity
• in experiment 1, 45 students were divided into 5 groups.
• in experiment 2, 150 students were divided into 3 groups.

Question 9

What was the procedure of experiment 1 in Loftus and palmer?

Answer 9

All participants were shown the same seven film clips of different traffic accidents. They were given a questionnaire with one critical question. “How fast were the cars going when they hit each other.” One group was given this question while the other four were given verbs ‘smashed’, ‘bumped’ , ‘collided’ , ‘contacted.’

Question 10

What was the IV and DV in the Loftus and Palmer study.

Answer 10

The IV was the verb used.
The DV was the participants’ estimate of the speed of the cars in mph.

Question 11

What was the procedure of experiment 2 in Loftus and Palmer’s study?

Answer 11

Participants watched a one-minute film with a car crash and answered a questionnaire with a critical question “about how fast were the cars going when they.. each other?” One group was given the verb ‘hit’ the other got the verb ‘smashed’ and the third group, (control group) was not asked about the speed. One week later, all participants were asked to complete another questionnaire which contained the critical question “did you see any broken glass?” The DV was whether the answer to the question was yes or no.

Question 12

What were the results to the Loftus and Palmer study?

Answer 12

• experiment 1, the verb ‘smashed’ produced the fastest speed estimate (40.5 mph), ‘contacted’ got the slowest (31.8 mph)
• experiment 2, more participants in the ‘smashed’ condition reported seeing broken glass.

Question 13

What was the conclusion of Loftus and Palmer’s study?

Answer 13

The verb used in a question influences a participant’s response ie the way a question is phrased influences the answer given. Leading questions can distort memory.

Question 14

What is context dependent memory?

Answer 14

The ability to remember things better when we are in the same context as learning and recall.

Question 15

What is the background to Grant et al’s study?

Answer 15

Grant et al wanted to look at whether context could improve memory for studied material in school.

Question 16

What was the aim for Grant et al’s study?

Answer 16

To see whether being in the same context as learning and recall aids memory.

Question 17

What was the research method, design, IV,DV of Grant et al’s study?

Answer 17

• laboratory experiment using an independent measures design.

There were two independent variables:

Reading Condition (Silent or Noisy)
Testing Condition (Silent or Noisy)

There were three dependent variables:
Performance on a multiple-choice test
Performance on a short answer test

Question 18

What was the research method, design, IV,DV of Grant et al’s study?

Answer 18

• laboratory experiment using an independent measures design.

IV- the context that the information was learnt and recalled in (noisy or silent)
DV- performance of the short answer and multiple choice tests

Question 19

What was the sample in Grant et al’s study?

Answer 19

• opportunity sampling
• 8 members of a psychology laboratory class served as the experimenters. Each experimenter recruited 5 acquaintances.
• there were 39 participants, mixed gender and a wide age range. (17-56)

Question 20

What was the procedure for the grant et al’s study?

Answer 20

-all participants read an article with headphones on. In the silent condition, they heard nothing. In the noisy condition, they heard background noise.
- 2 minute break was incorporated to minimise recall from short term memory.
- there as a short answer test and a multiple choice test. (Recall and recognition)
- participants were tested in the noisy or silent condition with headphones on.
- the four conditions were noisy-noisy,silent-noisy, silent-silent, noisy-silent

Question 21

What were the results from grant et al’s study?

Answer 21

-for both multi choice and short answer tests, performance was better in the matching context. (Noisy-noisy, silent-silent.)
- silent-silent mean score: 6.7
- Silent-noisy mean score: 4.6

Question 22

What were the conclusions of Grant et Al’s study?

Answer 22

• people will recall more if they are in the same context at recall as they were at learning.
• Studying and testing in the same environment leads to better performance.

Question 23

Give one application of the Grant et al study?

Answer 23

The study found that matching environments improve memory and recall. Therefore, as students will be completing their exams in silence, they should match this with silent revision, as it enhances chances of better recall and help increase academic grades.

Question 24

What is selective attention?

Answer 24

Selective attention is simply the act of focusing on one thing while ignoring other information.

Question 25

How can selective attention be measured using shadowing?

Answer 25

Selective attention can be measured by getting people to shadow/follow one message by ignoring a different message. This shadowed message is repeated out loud.

Question 26

What is the cocktail party effect?

Answer 26

When you are paying attention to a conversation at a party but you still notice your name being said across the room.

Question 27

What was the aim of Moray’s 3 experiments?

Answer 27

Exp 1: to see whether we create ‘blocks’ on information we are not focusing on.
Exp 2: to see whether our attention can be shifted from something we are paying attention to an ignored message if we hear our name
Exp3: to see whether unimportant information can attract our attention if we are paying attention to something else.

Question 28

Describe Moray’s experiment 1

Answer 28

Participants were asked to wear headphones and pay attention to a passage played into their right ear (shadowed passage) whilst ignoring the short list of 35 words being played into their left ear (rejected message)
- at the end, participants were given a list of words and asked whether they recognised them. Some of the words came from the shadowed passage, some came from the short list of words from the rejected message.

Question 29

What was the IV,DV, experimental design and research method used in Morays experiment 1?

Answer 29

IV - the passage and the 35 words being repeated.
DV - how many words were recognised from the shadowed/rejected message
Experimental design - repeated measures design
Research method - laboratory experiment.

Question 30

What were the results of Moray’s experiment 1?

Answer 30

Participants could recognise more words in the shadowed message (the one they were paying attention to) than the rejected message.
Recognition of words presented in the shadowed message: 4.9/7
Recall of words presented in the rejected message: 1.9/7

Question 31

Describe Moray’s experiment 2:

Answer 31

12 participants were asked to shadow/follow a story played to their right ear at the start. In some conditions, participants heard on instruction to change to their other ear w their name and in some conditions without their name.

Question 32

What is IV, DV, research method and experimental design of Moray’s experiment 2?

Answer 32

• IV- Whether or not instructions change ear called out their name or not
• DV- number of effective vs non-effective instructions responded to
• Laboratory experiment
• repeated measures design

Question 33

What results of Moray’s experiment 2?

Answer 33

When presented with instructions with their name, participants heard and responded to the instructions 20/39 times, compared to the 4/39 times when instructions included no name.

Question 34

Describe the experimental design, sample and research method used in Moray’s experiment 3?

Answer 34

• independent measures design
• two groups of 14
• lab experiment

Question 35

Describe Moray’s experiment 3?

Answer 35

Moray noted that when participants were given instructions at the start, eg. “You will receive instructions to change ears”, this could have improved chances of material in the rejected message being heard. Moray wanted to see whether this affected results or not. One group was told to remember as many numbers as they could but not the other.

Question 36

Results of Moray experiment 3?

Answer 36

There was no significant difference in the number of digits recalled correctly between with or without instructions. This shows that even when alerted to the possibility of hearing digits, this was not important enough to break through the attentional barrier if participants were shadowing or paying attention to the prose passage.

Question 37

What is an application of Moray’s study?

Answer 37

• teachers could use a students name to get their attention
• when in comas, the use of calling someone’s name could help break them out of it

Question 38

What is an application of Moray’s study?

Answer 38

• teachers could use a students name to get their attention
• when in comas, the use of calling someone’s name could help break them out of it

Question 39

Application for loftus and palmer

Answer 39

• Shows not to use leading questions in interrogations with witness as to not distort their memory.

Question 40

What is inattentional blindness?

Answer 40

Inattentional blindness is when we fail to see an event or object in our visual field because we are focused on other things.

Question 41

What were the aims of Simon and Chabris’ (1999) study?

Answer 41

• to see whether people will notice an unexpected event if they were paying attention to something else.
• if a difficult task increases the rate of inattentional blindness.
• so see if a more realistic video recording gives similar or different findings (neisser, 20 years ago used superimposed videotapes.)

Question 42

What was the sample, research method and experimental design for Simon and Chabris?

Answer 42

-228 undergrad students
- some volunteered without payment, some given a candy bar, some got nothing
- lab experiment
- independent measures design

Question 43

What were the IVs and DVs of Simon and Chabris?

Answer 43

IV- there were 4 videos
1) transparent umbrella woman
2) transparent gorilla
3) opaque gorilla
4) opaque umbrella woman.
For each of these videos there were different conditions
1) white-easy
2) white - hard
3) black easy
4) black hard.
The DV- whether participants noticed the umbrella woman or gorilla.

Question 44

What was the procedure of Simon and Chabris?

Answer 44

Participants watched one of the four videos. They were then asked to do either the easy task (make a metal note of all passes made in either the black or white t shirts.) or a difficult task (keep separate count of how many high and bounce passes made by players in black or white shirts.) after the video, participants were asked questions to see whether they noticed the unexpected event.

Question 45

What were the results of Simon and Chabris’ study?

Answer 45

Out of all 192 participants across all conditions - 54% noticed the unexpected event, 46% didn’t.
67% of participants in opaque condition noticed unexpected event, 42% of participants in transparent condition noticed unexpected event.
More participants noticed the unexpected event in the easy (64%) than the hard (45%) condition.
The gorilla was noticed more by participants who were following the black team.

Question 46

What were the conclusions of the Simon and Chabris study?

Answer 46

Inattentional blindness occurs more frequently in superimposition (transparent videos) than the live action (opaque videos)
Individuals are more likely to notice unexpected events if these events are similar to the vents they’re paying attention to (like the people noticing the gorilla when they were focusing on the black t shirt players because they’re both black)

Question 47

Application of Simon and Chabris?

Answer 47

Simon and Chabris’ study shows how we may fail to notice certain events in real life situations. The research could be used during driving tests or lessons to warn people of the need to watch out for hazards.

Question 48

How does Simon and Chabris study fit into the cognitive area?

Answer 48

The cognitive area investigates internal mental processes such as attention, thinking and memory. As Simon and Chabris’s study looked at inattentional blindness it is in the cognitive area. Simon and Chabris study highlights that if we fail to pay attention to sensory information coming in via our eyes, we cannot store that information in our memory.

Question 49

Similarities and differences between Loftus and Palmer and Grant et al.

Answer 49

Similarity-
They both use quantitative data, loftus and palmer measured participants speed estimates ans how many people reported seeing broken glass. Grant measured the average score from the tests that were taken in the mismatching and matching contexts.
Difference-
Grant had a smaller sample of only 39 participants, L&P in experiment 2 had a sample of 150 participants

Question 50

Similarities and differences between Moray and Simon + Chabris

Answer 50

Similarities:
- both quantitative data
- both used undergrad students
Differences:
- sampling methods were different Moray - opportunity and SC was self select

Question 51

What are the strengths of the cognitive area

Answer 51

+ good scientific status. Most research is experimental abd takes placr under controlled condiitons.
+ investigates mental processes such as memory, attention and thinking helps us ti understand human behaviour better. E.g errors in eyewitness testimony

Question 52

Weaknesses of the cognitive area?

Answer 52

-issues with comparing human mind to a computer as we are not always rational and can be affected by emotiojs or instincts
-cognitive psychology is reductionist. Focuses on mental processes and ignores other factors that can affecr our behaviour.

Question 53

What does reductionist mean?

Answer 53

a theory in psychology centered on reducing complex phenomena to their most basic parts

Question 54

Evaluation of Simon and Chabris

Answer 54

G - students are more vigilant than average. Sample is not representative of the wider population
R - different sizes of screens used. Levels of inconsistencies reduced reliability and replicability.
A - could be used during tests and driver awareness to warn people to watch for hazards
V - artificial task, low ecological validity, however could argue watching a video is an everyday task
E - participants deceived as to true aim. No distress caused as participants were debriefed and could watch the video again.

Question 55

Evaluation of Grant Et al

Answer 55

G - 8 psychology students recruited friends to take part in the study - less generalisable as participants likely to be similar to the students.
R - standardised procedure eg. Same article. Makes study reliable as it is easily replicated. However, everyone did not have the same amount of time to read article. Reduces reliability
A - Application is to advise students to revise in silence to match the exam condition which will be in silence.
V - students were given material very similar to course material , increases ecological validity.
E - highly ethical, informed consent, participants had as much time as they wanted to read the article, limited stress.

Question 56

Evaluation of Moray

Answer 56

G - the experiment used both genders, makes the study more representative of both genders.
R - standardised procedure - everyone wore headphones - increased replicability therefore reliability.
A - teachers can use a students name to catch their attention
V - low ecological validity as it is not a usual task to shadow a message. However, this experiment has mundane realism as it is normal to follow light fiction.
E - no real ethical issues with the study.

Question 57

Evaluation of loftus and palmer

Answer 57

G - lacks generalisability as all participants were students who are not repsentative of the wider population
R - standardised procedure - everyone watched the same 7 clips. Increases replicability therefore reliable.
A - suggest police should be careful when interrogating witnesses as leading questions can distort memory.
V - study lacks ecological validity as the participiants lacked the emotional involvement of an actual witness.
E - participants were deceived and watching film clips could have been distressing if they had recently experienced a car crash.