Core Political Ideas - Key Terminology Flashcards
Key terminology specified by the exam board
Atomism
A society that exists as a loose collection of self-interested and self-sufficient individuals.
Authoirty
Those in higher positions of society who are best positioned to make decisions on society’s behalf. Their legitimacy comes from being high up in the social hierarchy, and those below them in the hierarchy to obliged to obey.
Change to conserve
Society should adapt to shifting circumstances by mkaing small changes rather than rejecting change outright. These compromises with preserve the essence of society. If society does not change, it risks rebellion and/or revolution.
Hierachy
A system in society where groups are assigned varying levels of power and status based on factors like social class and gender.
Anti-permissiveness
A rejection, informed by Christian morality, that there is no right and wrong, which was dubbed ‘permissiveness’ by neo-conservatives. Neo-conservatives argue that sex before marriage, same-sex relationship, abortion and recreational drug taking, for example, are wrong. Modern one-nation Conservatives are more accepting of same-sex relationships and marriage, and abortion.
Human imperfection
A belief that humans are imperfect or flawed which makes them incapable or always making good decisions for themselves.
Noblesse oblige
The duty of the society’s elite, the wealthy and privileged, to look after those less fortunate.
Radical
Belief in ideas that favour drastic political, economic and social change.
Empiricism
The idea that knowledge and evidence come from real experience and not abstract theories.
Laissez-faire
A preference for minimal government intervention in the economy.
Equality of opportunity
All liberals accept that inequality is inevitable in a free society. Modern liberals argue for equality of opportunity by enabling all citizens to have access to education and for society to be truly meritocratic.
Formal equality
Similar to foundational equality, formal equality is a wider concept, supported by all liberals. It includes equality under the law but also the principle that every individual is entitled to equal treatment in society. It also includes the idea of equality of opportunitiy and the abolition of artificial social distinctions such as gender inequality.
Foundational equality
A fundamental liberal belief that all individuals are born with natural rights that entitle them to liberty, the pursuit of happiness and avoidance of pain. In a liberal state this translates into the rule of law, where all individuals are treated equally under the law.
Limited government
The principle that governments should be constrained by strong laws and constitutions. Classical and neo-liberals believe strongly in limited government. All branches of liberalism support entrenched constitutions and the separation of powers to reinforce limited government.
Mechanistic theory
The idea that the state is not organic but was created by individuals to serve them and act in their interests. Classical and modern liberals differ in their definitions of what these best interests are.
Meritocracy
A principle that suggests that although inequality is natural in a free society, in a just society those with greater abilities, drive, creativity and work ethics deserve more rewards that those without those qualities.
Tolerance
Requires a willingness to accept the existence of opinions or behaviour that one dislikes or disagrees with. Locke argued for a need to tolerate diversity of spiritual belief because one cannot force another huma being to have faith. J.S. Mill went further in advocating freedom of speech as essential for the discovery of truth.
Social contract
The state is based on a contract between the government and the people. Government agrees to make itself accountable to the people and to operate within the law, while the people should agree to obey the laws and uphold the security of the state.
Developmental individualism
Both classical and modern liberals think that individuals must help themselves to improve. Classical liberals think the state should interfere as little as possible in this process, whereas modern liberals belive that the state, by intervening, can assist individuals’ development.
Egotistical individualism
The belief that individual freedom is associated with a rational sense of self-reliance and self-interest.
Keynesianism
A system of economic management where the state directly intervenes to stimulate the economy to achieve full employment and economic growth.
Laissez-faire capitalism
A principle mostly associated with the role of the state within a capitalist society, which proposes that capitalism and wealth creation are enhanced if the state doesn’t interfere with the markets for goods, services and labour.
Negative freedom
Freedom from interference by other people. Negative liberty is primarily concerned with freedom from external restraint.
Positive freedom
The freedom to do something rather than freedom from interference and to act in the context of the structural limitations of the broader society.
Enabling state
A state that doesn’t necessarily provide for people directly but creates the conditions where people can help themselves. Education provision for all is a key example.
Harm principle
The idea that the state is justified in interfering with individual freedom when it is to prevent some citizens doing harm to others.
Minimal state
A concept associated with classical and modern neo-liberalism. It suggests that in a free society, the state must be strongly controlled and should have a minimal breadth of functions. If the state has too many functions, it is likely to interfere with individual liberties. The concept is also associated with laissez-faire capitalism.
Capitalism
An economic system, organised by the market, and based on private propety, free enterprise and competition between individuals and companies.
Common ownership
The state and the public have ownership of property and the economy. The opposite of private ownership that exists with the free-market capitalist economy.
Communism
Ideology with a society that is communally organised with an economy built on common ownership, in which goods are held in common and are available to all as needed, at its core.
Cooperation
Individuals working collectively to achieve mutual benefit, with the fraternal belief that humans perform best when working together.
Fraternity
Humans regarding each other as siblings rather than rivals. Relationships are not based on competition or enmity but on generosity and solidarity.
Class consciousness
The moment when the proletariat realises that capitalism is exploiting them, thus empowering them to begin the collective struggle of revolution, after which communism, the perfect socialist society, will be established.
Dialectic
A clash of ideas and perceptions between each stage of history. It occurs when the pre-existing set of vaules of society, as understood by the ruling class, are no longer vauled by the majority. A new society will be born from these two opposing tensions.
Historical materialism
A theory which argues that economic factors are the driving force for changing events. This economic base form and shapes the superstructure, which is made up of culture, politics, law, religion, ideology and social consciousness.
Keynesian economics
John Maynard Keynes argued that governments should stimulate economic demand in times of recession via state spending. Government should also state manage the economy by using tax and interests to influence demand and prevent recessions.
