core ideology: liberalism

Question 1

human nature

Answer 1

our fundamental character and nature
shapes perspective on the society

Question 2

state

Answer 2

what is the role of the state?
should it be large, omnipotent and strong or limited in range and purpose?

Question 3

society

Answer 3

what sort of society do we want to encourage and build?
in what circumstances do individuals live their best lives?

Question 4

economy

Answer 4

what type of economy do we wish to create?
what should it be aiming to achieve?

Question 5

liberalism

Answer 5

• political philosophy that promotes individual rights, civil liberties and democracy
• economy views it as - more right wing (private property)
• law views it as - more left wing
• 2/3’s of the worlds nations are ‘liberal democracies’
• ‘end of history’ - the inevitable destination for advanced societies
  evolved over time, was the opponent of conservatism and closer to socialism
• informs understanding of democracy

Question 6

origins

Answer 6

• the reformation (15/16th century), challenge to power of church, assertion of individual choice
• the enlightenment (17th century), intellectual movement promoting science, reason and rationality over superstition - challenging traditional ideas of power and authority
• individuals have free will, best judge of their own interests

Question 7

The Reformation (15/16th century)

Answer 7

challenge to power of church, assertion of individual choice

Question 8

The Enlightenment (17th century)

Answer 8

intellectual movement promoting science, reason and rationality over superstition - challenging traditional ideas of power and authority

Question 9

key thinker: john locke (1632-1704)

Answer 9

• ‘father’ of liberalism
• questioned relationship between government and individual and why and how should individuals defer those in government
• challenging centuries old belief that the natural form of government was monarchy which possessed ‘divine right’
• believed humans uniquely possessed power of logic and reason, they should therefore decide how they wish to be ruled
• challenged view that the state was gods creation and the ‘divine right’ of the monarch to govern
• rejected view that people were subjects of the state and compelled to obey it
• argued a true state would be one created by human kind to serve their interests, arising from consent of those governed by it
• argued a future state would be based on ‘state of law’ that respected natural rights and one that citizens had consented to voluntarily - social contract theory

Question 10

divine right

Answer 10

authority of god, ‘all subjects’ must obey the monarch

Question 11

social contract theory

Answer 11

written consent of citizens on how they wish to be ruled

Question 12

human nature: core ideas

Answer 12

• locke and john stuart mill rejected christian belief that man was deeply flawed and imperfect
• optimistic view: human nature has huge capacity to realise progress and happiness, guided by rationalism to develop answers to problems through debate and peaceful argument
• while individuals are self seeking and drawn to pursuit of individual happiness, their rationality prevents this from descending into greed and competition
• humans are capable of understanding others perspectives

Question 13

society: core ideas

Answer 13

• optimistic view of human nature, especially regarding capacity for reason informs liberalisms view of society
• reject view of life in state of nature as ‘natural society’ with ‘natural laws’ and therefore ‘natural rights’
• john stuart mill argued purpose of society is to promote individualism
• society should be built on individual freedom, the right to property

Question 14

the economy: core ideas

Answer 14

• devotion to private property informs liberalisms approach to the economy, if property is a natural right then liberals support an economic system that places private property as its heart: capitalism
• driven by liberals stress on individualism and positive view of human nature

Question 15

the state: core ideas

Answer 15

• state performs important role in adjudicating between competing claims of rational individuals
• liberals reject state where power is concentrated in one individual and exercised randomly
• state is only legitimate if those governed by it have volunteered to be under its jurisdiction - must have consent of the people
• liberals believe that in state of nature they have ‘natural rights’ that support individualism
• individuals would therefore only agree to abandon natural rights and individualism if under a state their natural rights were better protected
• stuart- mill argued state should tolerate all actions and opinions unless they harmed others freedom
• liberals believe power should be exercised only by those who are worthy who through their own efforts earn trust of the people

Question 16

the liberal state - methods and structures

Answer 16

• constitutional, limited government - government by consent is underpinned by a ‘contract’ between the people and government, embodied in a constitution
• constitutional government exists to restrain government by rules and procedures and preventing it from eroding natural rights
• state must reflect liberal belief in equal natural rights by striving for formal equality, everyone has same legal and political rights, ‘rule of law’

Question 17

different types of liberalism

Answer 17

• classical
• modern

Question 18

classical liberalism

Answer 18

• 17-19th late centuries
• period of 200 years, during which time different political figures contributed to development of liberalism
• is divided between ‘early’ and ‘later’

Question 19

early liberalism

Answer 19

• sought to apply liberalism core beliefs to the political and economic climate of the time
• key features: revolutionary potential, negative liberty, minimal state, laissez-faire capitalism

Question 20

revolutionary potential (early liberalism)

Answer 20

• liberal idea of rationalism was fiercely resisted in 18th century as was idea society should maximise individual freedom
• locke’s ‘government by consent’ was radical, dangerous idea suggesting revolutionary upheaval
• locke’s philosophy underpinned 1688 glorious revolution, which secured constitutional government and the end of concentrated power

Question 21

key thinker: mary wollstonecraft (1759-97)

Answer 21

• mary shelley’s mum
• argued treatment of women was affront to reason, denying individual liberty to half the population and condemning women to a ‘state of listless inactivity and stupid acquiescence’
• argued all men and women be educated to release their innate powers of reason
• developed liberal thinking in 18th century
• ‘vindication of the rights of women’, her gender focused feminist approach was founded on liberalism
• agreed human nature was rational and applied to all
• argued women irrational by denying their individual freedom and equality

Question 22

negative liberty

Answer 22

• early liberals championed individual liberty necessary for self determination and self reliance as well as the condition for government by consent
• ‘absence of restraint’ seen as allowing individuals opportunity to peruse their destiny, any attempt to intervene is an infringement of liberty

Question 23

minimal state

Answer 23

• if liberty is defined as the absence of restraint, then governments should be limited in how they behave and what they do
• minimal state would also reduce risks associated with concentration of power: the smaller, less powerful the state, the less likely it is to abuse power

Question 24

laissez faire capitalism

Answer 24

combination of negative liberty and minimal state led early classical liberalism to embrace adam smiths ‘market forces’ and ‘trickle down’ economics

Question 25

adam smith - the wealth of nations (1776)

Answer 25

in promoting free trade, the ‘invisible hand of the market’ would foster economic success, wealth will ‘trickle down’ to everyone

Question 26

later classical liberalism

Answer 26

• by 18th century UK and USA had become industrialised and urban and with it increasingly class conscious, posing a challenge to liberalism
• samuel smiles: acknowledged industrial life hampered individuals ability to be self reliant but feared that calls for greater state intervention
• herbert spencer: also rejected state intervention as promoting the ‘feeble and feckless’ at the expense of individual liberty
• he argued a minimal state would ensure ‘survival of the fittest’ and gradual elimination of those who can’t enjoy benefits of individualism

Question 27

jeremy bentham (1748-1832)

Answer 27

• founder of utilitarianism, supposedly scientific alternative to natural rights theory
• individuals would maximise their own ‘utility’, personal pleasure and absence of pain
• bentham acknowledged industrial society may promote conflict between individuals, therefore liberal state should be pro active
• ‘the greatest happiness of the greatest number’

Question 28

key thinker: john stuart-mill (1806-73)

Answer 28

• had an immense contribution to political philosophy and development of liberalism, sometimes known as transitional liberalism/ development individualism
• faced growing challenge of demands for universal suffrage but feared ‘tyranny of the majority’
• developed model of representative government and democracy where individuals elect suitably liberal minded representatives to make policy decisions
• he proposed universal education before introduction of universal suffrage
• had adherence to minimal state and negative freedom, so was unwilling to promote a greater role for state
• had idea of ‘negative freedom’ the harm principle that an individual’s actions should always be tolerated by the state and others, unless it’s harmful to others

Question 29

modern liberalism

Answer 29

reality of poverty in industrial britain forced liberals to question the application of their core beliefs, relating to liberty, individualism and society

Question 30

liberal social justice

Answer 30

• liberal government introduced state pension funded by increased tax of property owners
• ## john maynard-keynes argued mass unemployment deprived millions of their individuality - rejected laissez faire capitalism and promoted rule of the state in steering the economy to maintain full employment through public investment

Question 31

key thinker: john rawls

Answer 31

• justified larger enabling state as challenge to new socio economic threats
• only an enlarged state could protect individual freedom through guaranteeing equality of opportunity
• individuals needed to sacrifice more of their money and earnings to state through progressive tax
• constructed series of philosophical conditions to prove this was consistent with liberal principles
• individuals were in a ‘veil of ignorance’ asked to construct a superior society
• argued we should choose a fairer society where poor had better life than in a state of nature

Question 32

foundational equality

Answer 32

individuals need more than formal equality but also greater social and economic equality, achievable only through a significant redistribution of wealth via progressive tax and public spending

Question 33

constitutional reform/ liberal democracy

Answer 33

• as liberalism has sought to extend the state, in turn it has sought to reform it to better protect individual liberty
• it was the liberal party that first extended franchise to women and argues for lower voting age

Question 34

constitutional reform

Answer 34

• liberalism sought to extend the state in turn has sought to reform it to better protect individual liberty

Question 35

social liberalism

Answer 35

• updating ‘tolerance’ especially with respect to minorities
• development of ‘positive liberty’ and the enabling state, introduction of legislation on discrimination towards women and minority ethnic groups

Question 36

key thinker: betty friedan (1921-2006)

Answer 36

• argued too many individuals are held back due to innate factors such as their face, gender, sexual orientation and physical disability
• legislation to outlaw discrimination was entirely consistent, she argued, with mill’s ’harm principle’
• argued illiberal attitudes in society condemned women and others to underachievement, these attitudes were promoted through institutions described as cultural channels

Question 37

neo liberalism: liberalism or conservatism?

Answer 37

• neo liberalism emerged in the west in 1970’s
• pioneered by friedrich von hayek - a self confessed radical liberal who sought to apply adam smith to the modern age
• he argued that the growing state fostered paternalist attitudes and dependence
• 1970’s global economic problems led to calls for a reduction of the size of the state, seen as an expensive tax burden that undermined the efficiency of the market

Question 38

liberalism today

Answer 38

• following collapse of soviet communism and emergence of new capitalist states in eastern europe, liberalism entered in the 21st century with confidence
• equally, internet technology encouraged individual expression while many societies embraced alternative lifestyles
• new labour embraced economic liberalism, while conservatives embraced same sex marriage
• growth of global islamic terrorism has forced liberal democrat’s into a war on terror that involves limiting individual freedoms and undermined tolerance
• backlash within liberal democracies against negative aspects of globalisation, fuelling support for ‘populist’ political movements that challenged both economic liberalism and social liberalism