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Semester 2 Biology Revision > Control of Blood Glucose and Diabetes > Flashcards

Control of Blood Glucose and Diabetes Flashcards

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1
Q

Hypoglycemia

A

Low levels of blood glucose.

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2
Q

Hyperglycemia

A

High levels of blood glucose.

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3
Q

What is Diabetes?

A

Diabetes Mellitus is a complete metabolic disorder characterised by persistent hyperglycaemia in association with other cardiovascular factors.

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4
Q

What are the symptoms of diabetes?

A

Tiredness
Polydispina (Excessive Thirst)
Polyuria (Frequent Urination)

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5
Q

What does a glucometer do?

A

Gives an appropriate concentration of glucose in blood at that time.

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6
Q

3 Diagnostic Tests used for Diabetes:

A

1) Glucometer
2) Urine Dipstick
3) Blood Tests: Fasting BG Test, Oral Glucose Tolerance Test HbAtC levels.

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7
Q

Why is the fasting blood glucose diagnostic test effective?

A

1) Diagnose diabetes or pre- diabetes.
2) Used to check the effectiveness of medications.
3) Used to check effeteness of dietary changes.

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8
Q

Why is a HbAtc test used?

A

Red blood survive for 8-12 weeks measuring glycerinated haemoglobin (HbAtc) can be used to reflect average blood glucose levels over this duration, proving a useful long- term gauge of BG control.

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9
Q

How does an oral glucose tolerance test work?

A

1) No food or drink 8 to 12 hours prior to test.
2) Drink glucose solution.
3) Blood samples taken and tested.

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10
Q

What does a oral glucose tolerance test measure?

A

How well your body’s cells are able to absorb glucose (sugar) after you consume a specific amount of sugar.

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11
Q

What oral tolerance test is used to test for diabetes?

A

2 hour, 75 gram test.

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12
Q

What diabetes is the oral tolerance test used to test for?

A

Pre-diabetes
Gestational diabetes
Insulin resistance
Reactive hypoglycaemia (low BG after meal).

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13
Q

How is diabetes diagnosed? (With and without symptoms)

A

Typical symptom of hyperglycaemia and….

1. Random Venous Glucose Plasma > 11.1 mol/l    2. Fasting plasma glucose > 7.0 mmol/l or    3. 2 hour plasma glucose > 11.1 mmol/l (after 75 g OGTT).

No symptoms:
at least two laboratory plasma glucose tests (or HbA1c) on different days within diabetic range (see above).

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14
Q 
Type 1 Diabetes:
What happens with type 1 diabetics? 
When are individuals usually diagnosed with type 1 diabetes?
What causes type 1 diabetes?
When do you get symptoms?
Treatment?
A 
Body cannot produce insulin. 
Childhood or early adulthood. 
Cause is unknown but it is when your immune system attacks insulin producing cells. 
Suddenly.
Must take insulin everyday.
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15
Q 
Type 2 Diabetes: 
What happens with type 2 diabetics? 
What are the risk factors of type 2 diabetes? 
When do you get symptoms?
Treatment?
A

Insulin is created but muscles unable to respond to glucose= insulin resistant.
Advancing age, poor diet, lack of physical exercise, ethnicity.
Gradually
Managed with healthy diet, exercise and oral monotheraphy.

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16
Q

Retinopathy

A

Abnormal blood flow.

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17
Q

Neuropathy

A

Damage to nerves.

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18
Q

Nephropathy

A

Damage to kidney vessels

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19
Q

List the major microvascular (disability) complications of diabetes:

A

Eye- damage to eye blood vessels causing cataracts.
Kidney- damage to small blood vessels and too much glucose over works kidneys leading to neuropathy.
Kidney- Damages nerves in peripheral nervous system causes pain and numbness.

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20
Q

List the major macrovascular (disability and death) complications of diabetes:

A

Brain- Stroke
Heart- Coronary Heart disease.
Extremities- Cut off blood supply to extremities longer for wounds to heal.

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21
Q

Name other related cardiovascular risk factors associated with diabetes:

A
  1. Hypertension
  2. Dyslipidaemia (Abnormal amount of lipids).
  3. Obesity.
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22
Q

Glycogensis

A

High blood glucose present B cells release insulin.

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23
Q

Gluconeogensis

A

During starvation, breakdown of proteins from muscle cells.

24
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

Glucose stored in hepatocytes is broken down to release glucose into the blood.

25
Q

Glycolysis

A

Breakdown of glucose to produce ATP and NADH.

26
Q

Net production from Glycolysis:

A

2 NADH

2 ATP

27
Q

Net production from Krebs Cycle:

A

8 NADH
2 FADH2
2 ATP
6CO2

28
Q

What does Insulin do?

A

Stimulates hepacocytes and skeletal muscle cells to synthesise glycogen.

29
Q

What is an approximate level of stable blood glucose?

A

3.3- 6.7 mmol/l

30
Q

Where is Amylin secreted from and in what ratio?

A

Amylin is secreted from Beta Cells in Pancreas.

100: 1 Ratio with (Insulin= 100 and Amylin= 1)

31
Q

Glycogen

A

What glucose is stored as in the human body.

32
Q

How does the increase in insulin try to reduce the amount of glucose in the blood?

A

Increased:

  1. Ratio of glucose transport into cells.
  2. ATP generation.
  3. Conversion of glucose to glycogen.
  4. Amino acid absorption and protein synthesis.
  5. Triglyceride (Lipid) Synthsis.
33
Q

What type of hormone is Insulin?

A

Peptide Hormone

34
Q

What does the binding of the insulin and receptor allow:

A
  1. Hexokinase activation so glucose is phosphorylated.

2. Glycolysis is initiated.

35
Q

2 Functions of a GLUT 4 Receptor:

A
  1. Transports glucose.

2. Ensures rate of glucose entry into cells is directly proportional to extra cellular glucose.

36
Q

In the pancreas what are the 2 glands and their functions?

A

Exocrine Gland- Secretes enzymes to breakdown food.

Endocrine Gland- Secretes hormones to control blood sugar (ISLET cell).

37
Q

Glucagon

A

Hormone which regulates the breakdown of glycogen to glucose.

38
Q

Describe how glucagon helps in the process of breaking down glycogen to glucose.

A

Glucagon attaches the receptors on liver and skeletal muscle cells.
cAMP transports message to protein kinases.
cAMP attaches to protein kinases for conformation change.
Protein kinases add phosphate group to molecules to allow degradation of glycogen.

39
Q

Where is glucagon secreted?

A

Alpha Cells in the Pancreas.

40
Q

How does the increase in glucagon try to increase the amount of glucose in the blood?

A

Increased:

  1. Breakdown of glycogen to glucose.
  2. Breakdown of fats to fatty acids.
  3. synthesis and realise of glucose in liver.
41
Q

What secretes the hormones adrenaline and nor adrenaline?

A

Adrenal Medulla

Noradrenaline- Sympathetic ANS Nerve endings.

42
Q

What are the functions of the adrenaline and noradrenaline?

A
  1. Adrenaline and Noradrenaline- Increase lipolysis and breakdown of glycogen.
  2. Adrenaline- Inhibits Insulin and promotes breakdown of of glycogen to glucose.
43
Q

3 examples of Glucocorticoids:

A
  1. Cortisol
  2. Corticosterone
  3. Cortisone
44
Q

What is the role of Glucocorticoids?

A 
Involved in glucose metabolism:
1. Breakdown of proteins. 
2. Glycogenolysis
3. Lipolysis.
Resistance to stress:
1. ATP burst
2. Increased sensitivity to hormones.
45
Q

What type of feedback are Glucocorticoids secreted under?

Describe how Glucocorticoids are secreted?

A

Secreted under negative feedback.

  1. Hypothalamus Glucocorticoid sensor= low blood concentration of Glucocorticoids.
  2. Hypothalamus releases corticotrophin-releasing hormone.
  3. Which causes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
46
Q

If mechanisms to maintain homeostatic control are not controlled what happens?

A
  1. HYPOGLYCEMIA- low blood glucose levels.
  2. HYPERGLYCEMIA- high blood glucose levels.
  3. Persistently high blood glucose levels= DIABETES.
47
Q

What is the range of blood glucose levels?

A

4 to 8mmol/l

70-100mg/dl

48
Q

Units for measuring blood glucose levels:

A

mg/ dl

49
Q

Describe the range of blood glucose levels:

A

30-60= Hypohlycemia Coma
60-110= Normal
110- 140= Fasting levels for diabetes diagnosis.
140- 180= Renal Threshold.

50
Q

Absorptive state is first out of two phases that occurs during the breakdown of glucose. What happens? What effect dominates this state?

A

4 Hours post meal.
Ingested nutrients enter blood stream- 10% glycogen, 50% oxidised ATP, 40% Fat.
Effect of insulin dominates.

51
Q

Post- Absorptive state is second out of two phases that occurs during the breakdown of glucose. What happens?

A

4 hours after food absorption is almost complete.

Maintain blood glucose levels for neurones and red blood cells.

52
Q

In the Post- Absorptive state how are blood glucose levels mantained?

A

Glucose Production:

  1. Breakdown of liver glycogen.
  2. Lipolysis
  3. Gluconeogenesis using lactic acid and/or amino acids.

Glucose Conservation:

  1. Oxidation of fatty acids, lactic acid, amino acids and ketone bodies.
  2. Breakdown of muscle glycogen
53
Q

What are ketone bodies used to produce?

A

Oxidation into ATP.

54
Q

How does insulin move glucose into muscle cells?

A
  1. Rise in blood glucose= INSULIN secreted.
  2. Insulin circulates in blood.
  3. Binds to transmembrane insulin receptor.
  4. ‘Insulin receptor substrate’ phosphorylated.
  5. Causes increased expression of GLUT 4 receptors in membrane.
55
Q

Describe the Insulin Release mechanism in Key words:

A
  1. Glucose enters B cell.
  2. Metabolised by glycolysis.
  3. Increase in ATP.
  4. ATP sensitive K+ channels close. K+ cannot leave by facilitated diffusion.
  5. Build up of K+.
  6. Inside of cell less negative than outside= Depolarisation of cell membrane.
  7. Causes Ca2+ voltage gated ion channels open, allowing Ca2+ ions to enter via facilitated diffusion.
  8. Influx of Ca2+.
  9. Causes release of insulin stored in extracellular secretory vesicles.

Semester 2 Biology Revision (5 decks)

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