Context

Question 1

Geography of waters supply - climate

Answer 1

1. Distribution of water related to earth’s climatic zones - regions near equator receive high levels of annual rain
2. rainfall vary with seasons
3. equatorial areas

Question 2

Geography of waters supply - river systems

Answer 2

1. Worlds major rivers store water + transfer it across continents
2. amazon produces avg discharge 219,000 catchment 6.9mil = 20% of all river water entering world’s oceans
3. high temps can lead to water loss by evaporation

Question 3

Geography of water supply - geology

Answer 3

1. Where rocks underlying river basin are impermeable, water will remain on surface as runoff = create high drainage density
2. permeable soils + rocks e.g. limestone may allow water pass into underground drainage system
3. aquifers e.g. chalk store water underground

Question 4

Finite resources - world oceans and groundwater

Answer 4

1. water supply is limited
2. World oceans hold 97%global water, only 2.5% potentially available as freshwater + trapped in ice,snow+permafrost
3. most of remaining 20% groundwater
4. 1% easily accessible freshwater held in lakes, ecosystems + rivers

Question 5

Water stress, why, who will be ok and which countries may suffer + how many are short of water?

Answer 5

1. Global pop grow = demand for water increase = will be less water per person
2. rich water countries = not serious problem e.g. Canada
3. globally half bil people short of water (most africa/middle east)
4. china, parts of europe + india look set to suffer water stress in future

Question 6

Agriculture - user of water

Answer 6

1. major user, particularly as we struggle to increase food supplies for growing pop
2. now - agriculture use 69% worlds freshwater supply year
3. some agriculture less efficient than others - kilogram of beef 10x water costly to produce than kilogram of rice
4. irrigation systems = agriculture more productive, wasteful of water
5. poor management of systems = evaporation, seepage, salinization + fertiliser pollution

Question 7

Industry - user of water

Answer 7

1. Proportion of water used globally by industry (21%) rose slowly during 21st century
2. Est suggest coming decade = global rise = driven by large scale industrialisation in China+India etc.
3. industry create water pollution, more efficient user than agriculture - except paper manufacturing e.g.

Question 8

Domestic - user of water

Answer 8

1. Smallest category of consumption - 10%
2. Varies country to country = develop C 100,000 litres per person+year/ most african countries less than 50,000 litres = quality of water also vary
3. global domestic demand doubled every 20 years

Question 9

Water source - surface water

Answer 9

1. rivers,lakes,reservoirs = provide water for variety of users
2. mega dams on most of world’s major rivers + half of worlds dams in china, usa, india+japan = their reservoirs account quarter global freshwater supply

Question 10

Water source - aquifers + disadvantages

Answer 10

1. underground supplies from aquifers sole source of drinking water for est quarter of worlds pop
2. some countries (USA), water abstracted from aquifer faster than being replaced
3. long term costs over-abstraction = dwindling supplies, falling water tables + seawater contamination

Question 11

Pressure on water supplies (physical + economic)

Answer 11

1. Growing mismatch between water supply+demand
   Water stress - annual supply of water per person falls below 1,700km3 + figure drops below 1,000m3 water scarcity is used
   Physical scarcity - 75% of country/region river flows being used = quarter of world pop live areas e.g. USA
   Economic scarcity - development of blue water flows source limited by human+financial capacities e.g. sub-saharan africa use less than 25% river resources available

Question 12

Pressure on water supplies - India

Answer 12

1. Has 4% worlds freshwater, 16% of its population
2. demand prob exceed supply by 2020 as urban water demand expected to double+industrial demand triple
3. hydrologists calculate 43% of precipitation never reach river/aquifer + water table falling rapidly

Question 13

Pressure on water supplies - China

Answer 13

1. Has 8% world’s freshwater, 22% of world pop
2. two-thirds Chinese cities not have enough water all year round+national water supplies likely to reach stress levels by 2030
3. China use irrigation produce 70% of its food mostly in north+northeast = Yellow River+aquifer running dry
4. engineering projects soon transfer vital water to area from water-rich south

Question 14

Human impacts on water availability - environment, pollution, sewage, chemical fertiliers, industrial water and dams

Answer 14

1. human activity can have negative effect on water environment = pollution + abstraction = increase water stress
2. pollution groundwater less obvious than surfacewater pollution, no less a problem
3. sewage disposal developing countries = expt cause 135mil deaths by 2020 - disease / UK 1,400 mil litres sewage added to rivers daily = most is treated
4. chemical fertilisers - contaminate groundwater,rivers+water supplies
5. each year world creates 400bil tonnes industrial water = most pumped untreated into rivers+oceans =
6. big dams - trap sediment in reservoir = reduce floodplain fertility + flow of nutrient from rivers into seas

Question 15

Human impact on water availability - abstraction

Answer 15

1. removing water from rivers + groundwater sources have unintended consequences
2. worldwide = water extracted from aquifer faster being replaced - arid areas rainfall never recharge underground stores
3. removal of freshwater from aquifers in costal location = upset natural balance of saline+fresh groundwater = salt water incursion and salinization of wells and wetlands

Question 16

Access to water, what water insecurity means and effects it has

Answer 16

1. Water insecurity means not having access to sufficient safe water
2. Despite efforts to improve supplies+sanitation, 1.2bil people without access to clean water - many live in developing countries classified as ‘water scarce’
3. in these countries - poor most water insecure, few opportunities to escape poverty+access benefits of economic development

Question 17

3 related problems of water insecurity

Answer 17

1. availability - having a water supply and distribution network
2. access - freedom to use or income to buy water in particular location
3. usage - entitlement +understanding of water use and health issues

Question 18

Water poverty index

Answer 18

1. 2002, British Centre for Ecology and Hydrology published first water poverty index (WPI) - uses 5 parameters with score out of 20
   - resources = quantity of surface+groundwater per person and its quality
   - access = time and distance involved obtaining sufficient safe water
   - capacity = how well community manages water + health
   - use = how economically water used in home,agriculture and industry
   - environment = ecological sustainability (green water)

Question 19

Poverty and water

Answer 19

poverty+water go hand in hand

1. lack of water = hampers attempt to reduce poverty
2. improved water supply and sanitation = increase food production, better health and standards of living
3. water wealth in developed countries = brings cheap water,irrigation,energy and eco growth

Question 20

Price of water

Answer 20

1. demands overtake supply in global demands, water prices may follow oil+food prices upwards
2. developing countries - water free in rural areas but often carried daily; likely contaminated
3. larger cities - slum dwellers may have buy water from private vendors prices often exceed $1 per m3
4. prices freshwater depend upon transport costs + level of demand

Question 21

Price of water Cali

Answer 21

California cities import water over hundreds of kilometres from Colorado basin = lifting water+moving expensive

Question 22

Price of water India

Answer 22

Water scarcity prompted farmers to profit by selling abstracted water instead of using it for irrigation

Question 23

Risk of water insecurity - waters supply problems

Answer 23

1. secure water supplies essential to eco development = support irrigation, food production, manufacturing + energy generation
2. development, extraction+use of water resources can lead to environmental and supply problems + negative impact on both eco activity and human welfare
3. severe example of irrigation programmes - Aral sea
4. India - put 45mil hectares land into irrgation = depletion of underground aquifers + salinization of soil

Question 24

Risk of water insecurity - water conflicts

Answer 24

1. demand for water overtakes supply + stakeholders wish to use water = potential for conflict
2. more likely to occur in developing countries as water vital to feed growing pop+promote industrial develop
3. US report - suggest around 300 potential water conflicts around world as rivers,lakes+aquifers struggle provide sufficient supplies for countries

Question 25

Water geopolitics

Answer 25

1. countries compete for water, international agreements+treaties have to be drawn to best managed shared water supplies
2. upstream countries usually assert right of territorial sovereignty (our water = our decision), downstream countries claim territorial integrity = same amount/quality of water as before

Question 26

Sharing water/geopolitics - Helsinki rules

Answer 26

1. Under Helsinki rule, agreement that international treaties must include concept of ‘equitable use/share’ + applied to whole drainage basis not single countries = rarely true, country with greatest political,eco+military get better deal
2. criteria for water sharing should be based on:
   - natural factors = rainfall amounts, water sources and share of drainage basin
   - social+eco needs = pop size, development and welfare
   - downstream impacts = restricting flow,lowering water tables,pollution
   - dependency = are alt water sources available to country?
   - prior use? = tricky question of existing/potential use
   - efficiency = avoiding waste+mismanagement of water

Question 27

Water transfers

Answer 27

1. solution to countries with short of water is divert water from one drainage basin to another
2. large-scale transfers of water achieved by diverting river or constructing large canal to carry available water from basin to another

Question 28

Trends in water demands

Answer 28

1. By 2025, water withdrawal projected reach 5,235 km3 per year + likely have impact on food production,human welfare + natural environment
2. predictions unconfirmed as it involves uncertain factors like climate change

Question 29

Three alt futures

Answer 29

1. 2002 International Food Policy and Research Institute
2. futures calculated for 2025 + 3 scenarios = business as usual, water crisis and sustainable water
3. business as usual unsustainable for longer term, water crisis shows how mismanagement of water resources or climate change threaten our water+food supplies and lead to wider geographical problems e.g. conflict

Question 30

Climate change impact on water

Answer 30

CC 2 features - high global temp + increased extreme weather events

1. increased global temp = snowmelt which causes increase in spring discharge in major river basins = water lost to oceans or evaporated as present water management cannot store/use effectively e.g. Himalayan
2. Cyclones+monsoon events threaten water supplies intermittently, but shortages of water brought by increased freq+intensity of drought

Question 31

Players involved in water

Answer 31

1. Political = International organisations e.g. UN, govt departments, councils + pressure groups
2. Economic = World Bank, govts, developers, TNCs, agriculture + industry
3. Social = individuals, residents, indigenous groups, landowners, consumers, health officials + NGOs
4. Environmental = conservationists, scientists, planners, international organisations (FAO) + NGOs (WWF)

Question 32

Responses to rising demand - Hard engineering + advantages and disadvantages

Answer 32

1. Most major dam construction in future likely limited to developing countries, cost $22-31bil each year
2. benefits - irrigation = contribute 16% of world food production, HEP, flood control + domestic water supply
3. eco costs - very expensive, difficult to pay back cost
4. ecological cost - fragmented 6% of worlds rivers, disrupt floodpain agriculture,fisheries,pasture,forestry and ecosystems = many of ecological impacts not anticipated before dams built EIA relatively new
5. social cost - local communities starved of development+welfare investment, communities and livelihoods disrupted - India;China dam construction displaced 58mil people in last 4 decades

Question 33

Responses to rising demand - Rivers, lake and wetland restoration

Answer 33

1. Local scale - restoring meanders, replanting vegetation + using sustainable methods to manage watercourse e.g. River Restoration Centre UK = work on Rivers Cole and Skerne + now across UK
2. Large scale - US army corps of engineers begun restoring Kissimmee River Florida - floodplain ecosystem restored

Question 34

Responses to rising demand - water conservation

Answer 34

1. involves reducing amount of water used rather than trying to increase water supplies - agriculture more efficient irrigation/industry water treated recycled for further use
2. home - raising water prices and introducing water meters make consumers more careful and about consumption of water
3. irrigation - past flood irrigation proved wasteful of water as it leads to evaporation and seepage/ modern spray tech + drip irrigation more controllable and advanced + effective, however expensive
4. fertigation - uses small quantities of fertiliser with fine water sprinkles = proved effective in USA+Israel
5. industry - recycling and reusing, water treated using filters or chemicals

Question 35

Water technology

Answer 35

1. role of tech in managing and conserving future water supplies
2. tech now increase both waters supply and access
3. water transfer commonplace as civil engineering skills +construction tech improve

Question 36

Desalination

Answer 36

1. Process of desalination is removal of excess salt and minerals from water = produces freshwater suitable for consumption + irrigation
2. long time desalination was tech success that failed to deliver eco+environmental terms, but as water costs + demand increase = countries turning to desalination as part of future water strategy = many tech developed and increasingly water stressed countries
3. Saudi Arabia uses cheap energy to distil freshwater from seawater
4. costs of desalination difficult to calculate - subsidies often involved - cheaper processing and larger plants make it cheaper, but process uses lots of energy = rising oil costs
5. water produced high quality, though chemically different in terms of minerals compared to rainwater
6. ecological effects - concentrated brine by-product of desalination