Context Flashcards
Disrupted Families
He explains that essentially, socialisation in a family that has been significantly disrupted in some way, due to occurrences such as long-term unemployment, divorce, imprisonment or parental death, can lead somebody to commit crimes. In other words, he believes that “problem families” create “problem children”.
Furthermore he proposed that criminality was an aspect of a large anti-social behaviour syndrome, which is also the result of upbringing in a disrupted family.
Certain patterns of family life have consistently been shown to be related to crime – supporting by the finding that a small minority of families accounts for a large proportion of offences. Delinquents are more likely to come from broken than intact homes.
There is some evidence to support the argument that disrupted families are a risk fact in explaining why young people become involved in crime, but as Farrington and Juby indicated, other factors relating to the family are equally or more important. Their method of data collection and analysis is impressive because of the large sample, the longitudinal nature of the study, giving rich data over a long period, and the fact that it is prospective, which means that instead of analysing only those who had already become involved in crime, the study was able to pinpoint which factors can predict those most at risk.
However, it has not been able to throw much light on the nature/nurture debate as the key finding – that those from families where the parents have a criminal record are most likely to turn to crime – could be explained by either nature or nurture, and the study did not investigate this issue.
What is Moral Development?
Stages 1 - 4
The set of values acquired by children during their upbringing. These values become inhibit, establishing our sense of right and wrong.
LEVEL 1 - Pre-conventional morality
(most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine) - don’t have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.
• Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished they must have done wrong.
• Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.
LEVEL 2 - Conventional morality
At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models.
• Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers are related to the approval of others.
• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society so judgments concern obeying rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
Level 3 - Post-conventional morality
Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get. Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6. That is to say most people take their moral views from those around them and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves.
• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals. The issues are not always clear cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.
• Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. E.g. human rights, justice and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.
What is Monoamine? MAOA?
Dopamine (link is external) and serotonin (link is external). These are two similarly structured chemicals known as monoamines.
A connection between a version of the monoamine oxidase A gene and several types of antisocial behavior has been found. Maltreated children with genes causing high levels of MAO-A were less likely to develop antisocial behavior.
Low MAO-A activity in combination with abuse experienced during childhood results in an increased risk of aggressive behaviour as an adult.
High testosterone, maternal tobacco smoking during pregnancy, poor material living standards, dropping out of school, and low IQ can also trigger violent behavior in men with the low-activity alleles.
What is the “Weapon Focus” effect?
Weapon focus is a factor affecting the reliability of eyewitness testimony. Weapon focus signifies a witness to a crime diverting his or her attention to the weapon the perpetrator is holding, thus leaving less attention for other details in the scene and leading to memory impairments later for those other details.
What is the “Cognitive Interview Technique”?
The cognitive interview is a major part of interviewing witnesses. It’s essentially an interview between a witness and detective where the detective uses cognitive techniques in the form of CIT to “extract” information from the witness in as much depth and accuracy as possible.
There are four stages of CIT:
Report everything. The witness is asked to recall everything they can remember about the event, regardless of how insignificant they perceive it to be.
Context reinstatement. The witness is asked to give details on the context of the event, including where they were, what time of the day it was, what they’d been doing before that led them to this situation, etc.
Recall in a different order. The detective asks the witness to start from one point in the day and recall backwards or forwards from that point. It helps to reduce the “story-telling” tendencies we have when recalling information about a previous event.
Recall from a different perspective. The detective asks the witness to say what they think others could have seen from a different point of view.
How do people detect lies?
A paper by Brinke, Stimson, and Carney in May, 2014 suggests that people are sensitive to who is telling lies, even when their judgments of who is lying are not accurate.
In their studies, they created 12 videos of participants either lying or telling the truth. In these videos, people played the role of suspects accused of stealing. First, they were left alone in a room with an envelope containing $100. Half of them had been instructed to steal the money, while the other half were instructed not to steal it. Then participants were interviewed about whether they stole the money. Those who stole the money were instructed to lie to the experimenter—they had been told that they would be paid $100 if they could successfully convince the interviewer they had not stolen the money.
Analyses of the videos later showed that there were observable differences between the videos of the liars and the truth tellers in aspects like the LENGTH OF ANSWERS and the AMOUNT OF UNCERTAINTY IN THEIR VOICE.
- PHYSICAL CUES
- STORY CUES
What are false confessions? Types?
People who are more likely to falsely confess
- Mentally ill
- Children
- Old people
- Mentally unstable people
TYPES:
- Coerced: Forced
- Coerced Compliant: Forced and obeyed (agreed)
- Voluntary: Willing to confess
What is the “Organised / Disorganised” theory within crimes?
The organised killer is in control.
- Crimes carefully planned
- Will have thought about attack
- Selected specific victim (age, appearance, lifestyle occupation or another, less obvious characteristic)
- Choose locations
- Establish a relationship w/ victim in non-threatening way
- Bring correct organised materials (eg. weapons)
- Attempt to remove evidence from scene and / or hide the body.
- Take ‘trophies’ from crime scene (eg. keys, hair etc)
- May follow their crimes on social coverage
- Likely to be living with a partner / in stable relationship / is sexually competent
- Normal to high intelligence but may be a low achiever
- Likely to be angry, frustrated or depressed at time of offences.
The disorganised killer is out of control and leaves chaotic crime scenes.
- Attacks are spontaneous and show little evidence of planning
- Victims may have basic features in common (eg. all women) but most seem to be targets of opportunity
- Killers surprise their victims and kill them at or near where they first strike.
- Victims usually killed in quick / uncontrolled manner.
- Do not usually blind / control their victims and weapons are improvised.
- Little to no attempt to conceal body or hide evidence.
- Trophies are taken infrequently and do not follow their crimes in news.
- Poor social skills / probably lives alone / unable to maintain a stable romantic or sexual relationship.
- Probable poor personal hygiene
- Level of intelligence low and unlikely to be unemployed or low level of skilled job.
- Probably suffering from mental illness.
What is the “Top-Down Approach”?
The top-down approach
- American (used by the FBI).
It was based on a small number of case studies of offenders, which essentially categorized offenders and crimes into organised or disorganised:
- Organized crime scenes are generally characterized by no visible evidence or weapon. They’re planned in advance, thoughtful and not spontaneous. The body may be hidden, or moved from the original location. It reflects control, and restraints may have been used and brought with them.
- Organized offenders are thought to be of above average intelligence, socially and sexually competent, may be in a relationship, and was likely to be depressed or frustrated at the time of the murder.
- Disorganized crime scenes tend to be the result of spontaneous crimes. Little or no effort has been made to remove evidence, and crime scenes show lack of control.
- Disorganized offenders are likely to live or work nearby the scene, live alone or with parents, be of low birth order status, not be in a stable relationship, and of average or below average IQ.
- It’s described as a qualitative approach to offender profiling due to looking at the overall picture and using typologies.
- It’s based on police experience and case studies rather than psychological theory.
- It’s suitable for the more extreme/unusual crimes, such as murder, rape and ritualistic crimes.
What is the “Bottom-Up Approach”?
British police take a different approach to offender profiling to the FBI.
- It’s based on psychological theory, rather than police experience.
- One key theory is the “criminal consistency hypothesis”. This is Canter’s theory that criminals act in a consistent manner, and thus the characteristics they displayed in their crime are likely to be similar to how they are in their everyday lives.
- Interpersonal consistency: how the offender treated the victim may be characteristic of their approach to that race/culture/sexual orientation/gender. E.g. rapists may be aggressive to female co-workers.
- Spatial consistency: the offender is likely to commit somewhere that they are comfortable in - somewhere they know well. e.g. a murder may be committed en route to a friend’s house or their workplace.
- It’s based on patterns and objectivity, so it’s often referred to as quantitative.
- It’s appropriate for a wider range of crimes than the FBI approach, but works best for crimes such as murder and rape.
- It’s called the bottom-up approach because the police look at details and use this to gradually build up the profile, whilst the top-down approach attempts to fit crime scenes under pre-existing categories.
What is “Recidivism”?
Recidivism is one of the most fundamental concepts in criminal justice. It refers to a person’s relapse into criminal behavior, often after the person receives sanctions or undergoes intervention for a previous crime.
What is “Probation”?
The release of an offender from detention, subject to a period of good behaviour under supervision.
What is “Restorative Justice”?
System of criminal justice which focuses on the rehabilitation of offenders through reconciliation with victims and the community at large.
What is “Ear Acupuncture” and its effect?
-The ear is a micro-system and represents each part
of your body.
-There are points in the ear that relate to specific
organs including the lungs, liver, kidneys and
nervous system. All these organs can be affected
by drug and alcohol misuse.
- Treatment involves up to ten tiny needles being
placed in each ear for about 45 minutes.
- Regular treatments of ear acupuncture can help
clear your mind, build energy and give you a sense
of wellbeing. - People receiving the treatment have commented
on the peaceful, calming and empowering effects
that have helped to reduce anxiety and improve
their sleep. - The general effect is to aid the body to balance
itself in order to maintain health and wellbeing. - The treatment prompts the release of natural chemicals in your body, including endorphins, which help reduce cravings, ease withdrawal symptoms and increase relaxation.
What is the “Cognitive Behavioural Treatment”?
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a talking therapy that can help you manage your problems by changing the way you think and behave.
- Most commonly used to treat anxiety and depression, but can be useful for other mental and physical health problems.
- CBT cannot remove problems, but it can help you deal with them in a more positive way. It is based on the concept that your thoughts, feelings, physical sensations and actions are interconnected, and that negative thoughts and feelings can trap you in a vicious cycle.
- CBT aims to help you crack this cycle by breaking down overwhelming problems into smaller parts and showing you how to change these negative patterns to improve the way you feel.
- Unlike some other talking treatments, CBT deals with your current problems, rather than focusing on issues from your past. It looks for practical ways to improve your state of mind on a daily basis.
