Contemporary urban environments Flashcards
What is Urbanisation?
Urbanisation is the growth in the proportion of a country living in urban areas
What percentage of people live in urban areas?
More than 50% of the world’s population currently live in urban areas
In LICs are there more or less people living in urban araeas
The proportion living in urban areas is less in Low Income Countries than that of richer
countries.
Why does urbanisation occur?
It is usually young people who move to cities to find work. These people have children in the
cities which increases the proportion of the population living in urban areas.
Why do young people move to urban areas?
Urban areas have better healthcare, service accessibility and life expectancy. As life
expectancy is higher, the proportion of people living in urban areas is increased.
What is sub-urbanisation
Suburbanisation is the outward growth of urban
development where people move to the suburbs.
What are the suburbs
The suburbs are the outlying areas of the city which
are close enough to the central business district so
accessible by commuters. They are usually
predominantly residential areas
What is counter-urbanisation
Counter-urbanisation is when large numbers of
people move from urban areas into surrounding
countryside or rural areas
What is a megacity- and example
population of over 10 million eg. Tokyo, Mumbai
What is a world city
population under 10 mil
eg london
negative effects of urbanisation
Urbanisation creates economic inequality, social segregation and cultural diversity which may
lead to a rise in racism, hate crime and abuse but this varies globally.
What is ethnic segregation related to?
Ethnic segregation is closely related to economic
indicators, such as income and employment, and social
indicators such as health, crime and education .
How can segregation and inequalities be prevented?
Segregation and other inequalities can be prevented by
creating awareness and facilitating the needs of those who
have been marginalised within urban areas.
What is urban climate
Urban climate refers to climatic conditions within urban areas which differ from neighbouring
rural areas.
How does urbanisation change the landscape
Urbanisation changes the form of the landscape and consequently produces changes in an
area’s air quality.
How does urbanisation change the surface?
Surfaces that were permeable
become impermeable and dry due to
urbanisation. Urbanisation leads to a
growth in impermeable surfaces due
to the development of infrastructure ,
roads and pavements.
How does impermeable surfaces affect urban environments
As well as impacting water drainage,
the impermeable surfaces cause urban
regions to become warmer than their
rural surroundings, forming an
‘island’ of higher temperatures. This is
called the ‘urban heat island effect’.
How is urbanisation damaging for the environment in urban areas
urbanisation can damage rivers and the water cycle through contamination and
pollution.
How can the damages from urbanisation be solved?
This can be solved through water conservation and river restoration, along with the
development of sustainable urban damage systems (SUDS).
What is urban physical waste?
is generated from industrial and commercial activity alongside personal
consumption.
What are urban areas like with waste?
Urban areas often have a consumerist culture which traditionally does not promote
sustainability, reuse and recycling. Additionally, many people excuse themselves from making
sustainable choices as they feel they have little input in improving the environment.
Why is waste disposal a problem?
money, infrastructure, scale
How does money effect disposal
Money: Poorer countries cannot afford to dispose waste sustainably and safely, such as
toxic waste which requires special treatment.
How does infrastructure effect disposal?
Infrastructure: The lack of suitable infrastructure, i.e. the densely populated residential
areas makes it difficult to carry out large scale recycling schemes.
How does scale effect disposal?
Scale: Waste disposal is a huge problem. Landfills are not large enough and incineration
results in further pollution and waste.
What is sustainable living
Sustainable living involves meeting the needs of today without reducing the ability of people in
the future to meet their needs.
Have urban areas grown sustainably?
Urban areas have grown unsustainably and have a large ecological footprint due to the amount
of waste and pollution emitted. Urban areas can however be managed sustainably through a
range of strategies and schemes.
4 dimensions of sustainability?
The four pillars
are: natural, physical, social and economic .
What is a sustainable city?
Sustainable cities focus on the concept of liveability. This is the sum of factors that add up to a
community’s quality of life , including the natural and built environment, economic prosperity,
social stability, educational opportunity and cultural, economic and recreation possibilities.
How can a city become sustainable?
1 schemes to reduce waste and safely dispose of it: Limiting waste sent to landfills and
optimising recycling opportunities
2-Building carbon-neutral homes: For example, BedZED is a housing development in
London which aims to be a carbon neutral project, saving energy for future generations.
3 Creating an efficient public transport system : This will mean there are fewer cars on the
road so pollution is reduced.
What is cultural enrichment
the additions of new traditions, ideas and beliefs due to the arrival of new people
What is urban resurgence
Urban Resurgence - Also known as re-urbanisation, urban resurgence is the movement of people
back to an area which was previously in decline. This influx of people and investment further
improves the social, economic and environmental conditions of urban areas.
What is rural to urban migration
Reasons for rural-urban migration are divided into push and pull factors.
* Push factors cause people to move away from rural areas.
* Pull factors attract them to urban areas.
Push factors for rural-urban migration
Push factors are largely due to poverty caused by:
Population growth, which means the same area of land has to support
increasing numbers of people, causing over-farming, soil erosion and low
yields
Agricultural problems, including desertification because of low rainfall, systems
of inheritance that cause land to be subdivided into small plots, systems of
tenure and debt on loans taken out to support agricultural change
High levels of local diseases and inadequate medical provision
Changes introduced to try to pay off the interest on national debts. Land
previously used to grow food for local people is now used to produce cash
crops for sale to more developed countries
Natural disasters such as floods, tropical storms and earthquakes – people flee
rural areas and do not return
Wars and civil strife cause people to flee their land
Pull factors
Pull factors include the prospect of:
Employment in factories and service industries, which is better paid than work
in rural areas
Earning money from the informal sector, e.g. selling goods on the street,
providing transport or prostitution
Better quality social provisions, from basic needs such as education and
healthcare to entertainment and tourism
A perceived better quality of life in the city, fed by images in the media
What are the effect of counter-urbanisation for ST ives cambridgeshire?
St Ives, in Cambridgeshire is about 100 km north of London and 25 km northwest of
Cambridge.
The population structure of the town is changing. One section of the community is ageing, but
another is becoming more youthful. A large proportion of the working population is now
employed outside the town. There has been an influx of commuters from in and around
London. Housing in the area is affordable and there has been a boom in demand for property.
People in St Ives have higher incomes and higher standards of living than those in many other
parts of the UK. Retired people are also moving in to the area. Their impact is noticeable in the
increased demand for bungalows and small riverside apartments
What is gentrification?
Gentrification is a process of housing improvement. It is associated with a change in
neighbourhood composition in which low-income groups are displaced by more affluent
people, usually in professional or managerial occupations.
What is urban depreivation
Urban deprivation
Inequalities occur in all urban areas – enormous contrasts in wealth can be found over
relatively small distances. The wealthy and the poor seem to concentrate spatially - a form of
social segregation.
What is re-use (waste)
reusing products
What is reduction (waste)
The best way of managing waste is to prevent it. Businesses are being encouraged to reduce
the amount of packaging used
What is recycling (waste)
Waste products such as paper, glass, metal cans, plastics and clothes can be recycled if they
can be collected economically
What is river resoration?
River restoration is the process of managing previous damaged rivers to reinstate natural processes to restore biodiversity, providing benefits to both people and wildlife.
Where is Seoul, South Korea?
Seoul is the capital and largest city in South Korea. It is situated in the northwest part of South Korea on the Han River which roughly bisected into northern and southern halves. It is one of the world’s largest cities with a population of 10,197,604 million people (2017).
What is the Cheonggyecheon River restoration project
Cheonggyecheon is a small region in a central area of the city. It contains the Cheonggyecheon River, which had been badly damaged in the past and was restored from 2003. The restoration was needed because of decades of human alteration of the river;
Features of the cheonggycheon river project
2 Bridges added in total including 12 pedestrian bridges and 10 motorist bridges to improve communications from North to South across the river
The Hanang River was used as source of water pumped into the Cheonggyecheon River to deal with variable flow rates and maintain a regular flow of 40cm depth. The pumped in water is treated to prevent pollution.
The historic central zone had underground waterways redirected and given a new stream bed and landscaped banks
The Middle zone of the project has fountains and waterfalls to increase biological oxygen supply
Final zone has the stream allowed to widen and designed to look overgrown and wild The Hanang River marks the end point of the Cheonggyecheon River where the river flows into a wetland conservation area, and the end of the project. 4
How has urbanisation changed?
the urban population has grown from 746 million in 1950 to 3.9 billion in 2014
3 countries- India, china and Nigeria- together are expected to account for 37% of growth of the world population
Characteristics of suburban areas
large houses compared to inner city, however increase in flats due to rising urban populations
Larger gardens and the ability for open space
Large shopping centres and industrial areas take advantage of cheap land and big spaces
Majority of land is built on green field sites
Positive impacts of counter urbanisation
-Some shops see and increase in business- newer residents/ retired people have more disposable income
- older housing and buildings are restored by housing developers. Farmers are able to make money by selling land
- new residents (with families move into smaller towns and villages the services such as schools are able to stay open
Negative impact of counter urbanisation
- the newer developments might affect the local character of the area
- due to having more residents having the ability to travel to cities and shop online the local shops and services may close
- rural roads and infrastructure will struggle to cope with traffic- causes congestion and air pollution
- schools may have to close if all new residents are older people with no children
- house prices are going to increase, this might mean only older people can afford the housing and it may push the local people out of the area
Example of how companies offer mobile services
NatWest has mobile banking vans which visit rural areas in cornwall and devon
Example of counter urbanisation
St Ives Cambridge
What was the population in 1961 and 2010 in St Ives
3800
and then
16,400
How much of the population commute to London each day in St Ives
a quarter
Impacts in St Ives
Traffic congestion along the A14 at rush hour
House price in St Ives rose from £130,000 to £291,000 between 2000 to 2010.
Commuters can afford these high prices, whilst locals cannot
To cope with demand of housing- new developments are being built on the flood plain
The pop was ageing, however now there are younger people and families. Putting a strain on schools
Management in St Ives
Future developments are going to be controlled so they fit into the area
There are plans to expand primary schools to give 240 more places
Building flood protection along the river- cost £8.8
A £116 million busway has been built that links st ives to Huntington and cambridge- reduce congestion
plans to build 200 new homes
75 houses are gonna be affordable
What is urban resurgence
refers to the regeneration, both economic and structural, of urban area which has suffered a period of decline
Urban resurgence can take because off what 3 reasons
gentrification
property-led regeneration schemes
sustainable communities
What is gentrification
the change in the neighbourhood composition- low income groups are displaced by affluent people
What involved in gentrification
Rehabilitation of old house and streets
business replaced with better quality shops, restaurants and services
Example of gentrification
Nottinghill london
popular with upper class and middle
How does Las Vegas celebrate and mimic culture across the globe
The Venetian:
Replicates Venice’s canals, bridges, and architectural features, including gondola rides and Venetian-style frescoes.
Paris Las Vegas:
Features replicas of the Eiffel Tower, Arc de Triomphe, and other Parisian landmarks.
Luxor Hotel and Casino:
Replicates the Great Pyramid of Giza and includes a miniature sphinx and a 140-foot-tall obelisk.
Why is Las vegus a postmodern city
urban architecture and landscape: epitome of over-the top consumerism of American architecture
urban economy:service dominated tourism drives economy
What is urban regeneration
urban policy relates to the strategies chosen by local or central government to manage the development of urban areas and reduce urban problems
What is the 1979-1991 urban policy-
emphasis given to property led initiatives and the creation of an entrepreneurial culture
greater emphasis placed on the role of the private sector to regenerate inner city areas
Coalition boards were set up with people from the local business community and they were encouraged to spend money on buying land,
building infrastructure
and marketing to attract private investment
example of 1979-1991 urban policy
emphasis given to property led initiatives and the creation of an entrepreneurial culture
enterprise zones
urban land grants
derelict land grants
What is the 1991-1997 urban policy
partnership schemes and competition-led policy
greater focus on local leadership and partnerships
between the private sector,
local communities,
voluntary sector
and the local authority
Examples of the 1991-1997 urban policy
partnership schemes and competition-led policy
city challenge
city pride
single regeneration budget
What is the 1997-2000s urban policy
area-based initiatives
focus on narrowing the gap in key social and economic indicators between the most deprived neighborhoods and the rest of the country
local authorities were set targets to improve levels of health, education and employment opportunities and funding was allocated to assist them in delivering govt objectives
examples of the 1997-2000s ubran policy
area based initiatives
regional developments agencies
new deal for communities
housing market renewal programmes
What are Urban development corporations
set up in 1980s to regenerate inner city areas
funding came from central government
marketing was used to attract private investment in the area
example of urban development corporations
London Docklands Development
What is the City Challenge policy
cities competed against each other for govt regeneration grants
this was a local authority scheme which formed partnerships between the private sector, local authorities and local communities
Example of city challenge
Hulme City Challenge Partnership
What is the New Deal For Communities policy
NDC partnerships were established to carry out 20-year strategic programmes
focused on 39 most deprived areas
communities the heart of regeneration
Examples of New Deal For Communities policy
Devonport regeneration company
Failures of Urban Development corporations
property-led approach did little to tackle social problems
local people complained they had little involvement in the process and in the London docklands, locals did not tend to benefit from new housing and jobs created
Successes of Urban Development corporations
Effective in attracting new business to run-down areas and improving the environment of UDC areas
By the mid-1990s, they had attracted over 12 billion in private sector investment and created 190,000 jobs nationally
Successes of city challenge
the fact that local authorities had to bid for funding was judged to have resulted in more successful regeneration schemes
city challenge gave equal importance to buildings, people and values 1997 data revealed that city challenge had improved over 40,000 houses, created 53,000 jobs
Failures of city challenge
resources were thinly spread over large areas
areas which had previously received govt funding based on need no longer received funding - because bid was unsuccessful
money was lost preparing binds by local authorities who did not win funding
Success of New Deal For Communities
between 202 and 2008 NDC areas saw an improvement in 32 of 36 core indicators spanning crime, education, health, worklessness, community, housing and the physical environment
evidence found that gaps with both national and local authority levels had generally narrowed
Failures for New Deal For Communities
the NDC strategy delivered greater positive change for place- rather than people related outcomes
relatively little-net change was achieved for education and worklessness
What is a world city
world cities can be any size, however they often have large populations
world/global cities are recognised worldwide and are unchallenged as seats of prestige, status, power and influence
all global cities are key hubs in the emerging global economy
Demographic attributes of a world city
large population
high-incidence of well-educated and enterprising people
ethnic diversity and tolerance
Technological attributes of a world city
good access by air
state of art communication links
centre of research and development
Economic attributes of a world city
major hub of International banking, insurance and financial services
strong presence of TNC headquarters
prestigious equity market
Political attributes of a world city
national seat of demographic govt.
host to head-quarters of major international governing bodies
govt ambitions at national and local levels
Cultural attributes of a world city
centre of excellence and entertainment
rich hermitage
prestigious universities and research institutes
What is an Alpha ++ city
more integrated than all other cities and their constitute their own high level of integration
eg london and new york
What is an Alpha + cities
other highly integrated cities that compliment London and New York, largely filling in advanced service needs for Pacific Asia
eg tokyo, hong kong, paris
What is an Alpha and alpha cities
very important world cities that link major economic regions and states into the world economy
eg chicago, milan, moscow
What is a beta level city
important world cities that are instrumental in linking their region or state into the world economy
eg rome
copenhagen
What is a Gamma level city
can be world cities linking smaller regions or states into the world economy
eg
Bristol
What is Diaspora
A group of people with a similar heritage or homeland who settled elsewhere
What is economic inequality
the difference between levels of living standards and income
What is social segregation
when groups of people live apart from each other from the larger population due to wealth etc
What is cultural diversity
the existence of a variety of cultural or ethnic groups within a society
What is urban social exclusion
economic and social problems faced by residents of multiple deprivation
How does housing cause social segregation
Housing causes social segregation because developers, builders and planners tend to build with a particular market in mind
How does changing environment cause social segregation
neighbourhoods will change over time
poor areas are being gentrified and poor residents are having to move out
many large Georgian and Victorian homes are being converted to smaller, cheaper flats
How does ethnic dimension causes social segregation
When they first arrive migrants will be given poorly paid jobs and will only be able to afford cheap housing in poor areas
as other migrants arrive they will concentrate in these areas
How is urban deprivation measured
-income deprivation
-employment
-health deprivation and disability
-education, skills and training
-barriers to housing and services
-crime
-living environment6
Measures of quality of life
standards of education
level of pollution
quality of housing
crime
free school meals
vandalism
litter
access to leisure services, open space
level of income§
The effects of inequality
-disparities between water supplies
-poor often live in crowded areas
-poor people have poor health and more unemployment
-lack of social mobility
-poor will get stuck in a cycle of poverty
two types of commerce
local goods- known as convenience goods- everyday purchases
higher value goods- known as comparison goods- purchased with higher value
In retail pre 1970s- why did the development of local corner shops and local shops occur
service the need of people who just wanted to walk to get these low cost goods
Why do high streets and shopping areas have shops that AGGLOMERATE together
so that shoppers can easily compare goods, this happens with shoe shops for example
Changing patterns in the UK- 1970s
supermarkets began to be built in residential areas
stores sold food and non-food items
the idea expanded into hypermarkets that also sold electrical goods and clothing
changing patterns in the uk- 1980s
non-food retail parks expanded
DIY/ carpet and furniture stores
changing patterns in the uk- 1990s
huge-out of town shopping centres built on the periphery of urban areas
often at their own motorway junctions
changing patterns in the uk-2000s
E-commerce growing
traditional farmers markets selling local fresh produce
What is a ‘donut city’
a phenomenon that affects the physical shape of some cities if the North American Sun Belt
it consists of the concentration of urban activity in the ring road (where the newest and most advanced generation of housing estates and office parks are located)
and the parallel physical disappearance of all that remains inside
What other services have increased in the CBD
constructing hotels within the centre to entice tourists
leisure facilites
nightlife
residential areas
open spaces
What is a fortress landscape
designed with the sole purpose of security, protection, surveillance and exclusion
eg cctv
speed bumps
park benches with arm rest to prevent homelessness
What are edge cities
cities predominalty caused by urban sprawl
settlements on the edge of large urban areas
typically found in North America
eg Los Angeles
What is urban morphology
the spatial structure and organisation of an urban area
What is the main factor affecting land use in HICs
Land value
land value is traditionally higher in centre of city where accessibility is greatest
Peak land value Interesction (PLVI) is the point with the highest land value
Why did land values in edge towns increase
provided people with free parking, cinemas, restaurants which made it attractive
and inner. city areas became too busy and traffic was increasingly bad
What is the bid-rent theory
taking a transect from the CBD to the suburbs,
land values fall significantly as the different land users are less reliant on accessibility and
unable to pay the higher prices associated with this
Main land use zones in the city
CBD
informal settlements
inner city
green areas
industry
business parks
residential areas
out-of-town retail developments
What is the CBD
central business district- contains major shops, offices and entertainment facilities
What is the inner city
an area of old housing and light manufacturing industry
What are residential areas
housing areas
What are green areas
such as parks tend to be dotted throughout an urban area
What are out-of-town developments
developed by large supermarkets, spaces expanded to include non-food retail and entertainment complexes
What are buisness parks
tend to be found on edge of urban areas where there is good access to a major road
What is industry
manufacturing industries often require large areas of land and tend to locate towards the edge of cites where cheaper land is available
What are informal settlements
slums or shanty towns
What is Regent place
a project which will bring more than £200 million pounds of investment into the town centre
Key facts about Regent place
25,000 sq ft restaurant quarter
800 car park spaces
100 bed hotel
Key facts about Wharf Green and the big screen
Big screen swindon is located within the towns main shopping centre at Wharf Greeen
public arena that can hold 2000 people
What did the redevelopment of the area between Swindon Railway station and the Parade shopping area hope to deliver
new homes, new jobs and a modern bus station
What is the union square scheme
650,000 square feet of offices
150,000 square feet of shops
450 homes
850 space multi-story car park
new bus station
new public square
Poverty on Shadworth Estate
home to around 2,000 people
outskirts of Blackburn- NW England
one of most deprived places in the country
residents grapple with crime, drugs and problems with anti-social behaviour
How does enforcing a living wage help reduce poverty
ensures workers receive fair wages that covers living costs
How does provision of schools help reduce poverty
access to education allows people to increase their employability and allows them to break the cycle of poverty
How does access to affordable housing help reduce poverty
reduces homelessness and reduces financial stress- allowing them to have enough income for food and other essential needs
How does access to public transport reduce poverty
allows people to travel for work, school and other essential services- increasing employment opportunities
What is a pre-industrial city
largely unaffected by industrial developments and have retained much of their urban layout and characteristics
Have historic buildings such as churches and castles
High class residential zones near centre
eg- Bath and York
What are post industrial cities?
Urban moasaic- more chaotic and looser structure with many smaller zones ather than one or two dominating
Post-suburban and peripheral developmets with high tech corridors
Less dominant CBD
higher degree of social polarisation
service sector-based industry
Eg Milton Keynes
Tokyo
Las vegas
What are public transport oriented (PTO) cities and motor based cities (MBC)
Integrated approach towards planning
eg minimisng walking distance between residential developments and public transport nodes
may develop along railwat lines and main roads
eg Hong Kong (90% all passenger trips are by public transport
Detroit- economic actvities have moved to egde (demonstartes the donut effect)
African cities
Many cities have grown from colonial settlements and have not experienced the industrialisation of us AND european urban centres
HQ of forein multi-nationals may be present there along with large hotels and historic buildings
Informal housing
EG- keyna, capetown, south Africa
What are socialist cities
Classless cities
Housing located close to local services to encorurage walking
4 mirco neighbourhoods
City centre had prestige buildings and a central square for socialist rallies
eg prague
