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contemporary urban environments Flashcards

1
Q

What is urbanisation?

A

The increase in proportion of people living in an urban area

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2
Q

What are global patterns of urbanisation since 1945?

A

The urban population has grown rapidly from
746 million in 1950 to 3.9 billion in 2014

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3
Q

What countries will account for 37% increase of urban growth by 2050?

A

India, China, Nigeria

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4
Q

What are the 3 causes of urban growth?

A

natural population growth
industrialisation
rural to urban migration

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5
Q

What is a conurbation?

A

an extended urban area, consisting of several towns merging with suburbs of city

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6
Q

What is a megacity and how have these emerged?

A

Cities with a population above 10 million - increased from 2 in 1950 to 33 in 2024

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7
Q

How are megacities affecting global and regional economies?

A

there are major connections between world and megacities and this means trade, business and transport flows between these areas

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8
Q

What is a metacity?

A

a conurbation with a population above 20 million

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9
Q

What is the Hukou system in China?

A

an internal passport system that classifies every house as rural or urban

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10
Q

How many Chinese live on less than $2 a day?

A

362 million

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11
Q

What 3 things have causes internal immigration in China?

A

surplus labour supply
extreme poverty
difficult agrarian lifestyle

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12
Q

What is the problem with the Hukou system?

A

250 million Chinese live in urban poverty but go unaccounted as they’re registered as rural

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13
Q

What is deindustrialisation?

A

the decline in importance of manufacturing

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14
Q

What is decentralisation?

A

the movement of industries and people out of urban areas

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15
Q

What 3 factors cause urban resurgence?

A

regeneration
rebranding
gentrification

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16
Q

What are the consequences of urban growth?

A

urban sprawl
shortage of housing
lack of services and waste disposal
unemployment
transport issues

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17
Q

What is urban sprawl?

A

the spread of an urban area into surrounding countryside

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18
Q

What is urbanisation?

A

the expanding of cities

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19
Q

What is suburbanisation?

A

increased movement of the urban population into the rural-urban fringe

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20
Q

What is counter-urbanisation?

A

the movement of people from urban to rural areas

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21
Q

What are the positives of counter-urbanisation ?

A

increase in businesses
older buildings restored
farmer make money by selling land
rural schools can stay open

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22
Q

What are the negatives of counter-urbanisation ?

A

new developers affect local character
house prices increase
ability to travel to cities
increased congestion

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23
Q

Impacts of counter-urbanisation in St Ives

A

A14 traffic congestion problems
Average house price increase by £278,000
new developments built on floodplains
strain on schools sue to change in population

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24
Q

Management of counter-urbanisation in St Ives

A

240 places created in schools
built flood protection costing £8.8 million
£116 million busway built
200 new homes built where 75 were affordable

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25
Q

What is urban resurgence?

A

economic and structural regeneration of an urban area which suffered a period of decline

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26
Q

What is gentrification?

A

change in the neighbourhood composition

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27
Q

What are positives of reurbanisation?

A

replacement of run down builidngs
people’s QOL increases
people live next to cultural facilities

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28
Q

What are negatives of reurbanisation?

A

house prices increase
the poor are displaced
people struggling to move
loss of character of place

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29
Q

3 impacts of deindustrialisation?

A

increase in unemployment
longer term pollution
higher rates of crime

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30
Q

What are 3 examples of regeneration policies?

A

Urban development corporations - aim to regenerate inner city
City challange - cities competing against each other for regeneration grants
New deal for communities - nationally determined contributions to decrease release of greenhouse gases

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31
Q

Describe information about urban development corporations

A

established in 1980
spend money on land, infrastructure and marketing
money comes from central government
e.g London Docklands Development
-sold 431 hectares of land
-reclaimed 760 hectares
-24000 new homes with 85000 working
-2,700 business in trade
-very expensive costing £1.8 billion

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32
Q

Describe information about city challenge partnerships scheme

A

cities compete with each other for government grants
e.g. Hulme- improving housing built in 1960’s
included locals opinions on investment
£37.5 million spent on demolishing buildings
areas previously receiving funding may have lost it to bidding

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33
Q

Describe information about New Deal for communities

A

agreements allowing cities to take responsibility on regeneration of area and deciding on spending of public money
e.g. Manchester ‘working well’ - payment by results mechanism - rewarding service providers for achievement
employed 25000 people and supported 70,000 residents

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34
Q

What are the trends of megacities?

A

1990 - 10 megacities
2010 - 22 megacities
Today - 33 megacities
2050 - 67 megacities

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35
Q

What is a world city?

A

cities that have great influence on a global scale due to financial status and commercial power

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36
Q

Charactersitics of a world city?

A

high quality education
domination of trade
centres of media and cpmmunication
multi-functional infastructure
residents employed in information sector

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37
Q

What is urban morphology?

A

spacial structure and organisation of an urban area

38
Q

What is CBD?

A

central business district- an area that contains major shop, office and entertainment facilities

39
Q

What are edge cities?

A

self contained settlements which have emerged beyond original city boundary

40
Q

What are the characteristics of a edge city?

A

developed next to a major road or airport
in close proximity to shops, offices or other businesses
lack clear structure
linked to extreme social segregation
wide range of amenities

41
Q

What is an example of economic inequality?

A

Mumbai - most expensive home ‘Antilla’ worth $21 billion overlooking slums
Asia, Africa and South America with largest wealth gaps

42
Q

How is urban deprivation measured?

A

income
employment
health
education
housing
crime
lived environment

43
Q

How is poverty being tackled?

A

-enforcing a living wage
-provision of schools
-supporting skilled workers
-access to affordable housing
-greater provision of public transport
-enforce minimum environmental standards
-fairness comission - make sure places ar etreated equally

44
Q

What is the urban heat island effect?

A

The idea of a micro climate ‘urban dome’ that forms around a city - temperatures inside the city being higher than ones in rural areas surrounding them

45
Q

How can the urban heat island effect be managed?

A

cool surfaces - build buildings with reflective material
green roads - use porous surfaces that allow water to seep in
green roofs - reduce rainwater runoff and reduce rooftop temps
urban greening - provides shade, cooling areas
sky view factor - openness between buildings reduces accumulation of heat

46
Q

What factors affect the urban heat island?

A

-temperature
-precipitation
-relative humidity
-visibility
-wind speed
-radiation
-pollution

47
Q

What are th effects of an urban area on a local climate?

A

-higher temp by 1-3 degrees
-heavier and more frequent rain
-humidity is lower
-more air pollution
-slower wind speeds

48
Q

What is a named example of wind management in an urban area?

A

Burj Khalifa - Dubai
-softened edges deflect wind and prevent whirlpools
-orientataed to prevailing wind
-withstands 240 km/hr winds

49
Q

What are the main gases that cause pollution in urban areas?

A

-carbon monoxide
-nitorgen oxide
-sulphur dioxide
-particulate matter

50
Q

What is photochemical pollution?

A

a mixture of pollutants that are formed when nitrogen oxides react to sunlight, creating a brown haze above cities

51
Q

Describe the Clean Air Act

A

introduced in 1956 as a result of London’s smog
-dust suppressants installed
-smoke free zones introduced
-councils monitoring pollution

52
Q

Describe the Vehicle control and public transport policy (UK)

A

280,000 trees planted
-world’s first ultra low emission zone
-1500 electric car charging points
-£48 million scrappage fund for polluting cars

53
Q

What is zoning of industry?

A

where industries are located downwind in cities and factory chimneys are built above inversion layer

54
Q

What are urban transport solutions?

A

-congestion charges e.g. London 2003
increase in cycling scheme
waterways as use of transport
park and ride
ban cars driving on some days

55
Q

What are the problems with urban drainage?

A

higher precipiattion in cities
impremeable surfaces lead to flashy hydrographs and less infiltration
rapid movement of water to collective stores

56
Q

What are issues with urban river catchment management?

A

pesticides and nutrients from gardens
higher water temp
pollution of toxic chemicals
erosion of river bank due to incresed flow

57
Q

What are SUD’s and examples?

A

natural processes in landscape to reduce/control flooding
-roffwater collected in water butts
-afforestation
-e.g. Moor Park Centre, Blackpool

58
Q

What is the Cheonggyech River Project?

A

example of river restoration in urban catchment
-originally river was built over with 4 lane overpass due to being a sanitation and flood risk
$281 million scheme converting it into 5.8km ecological and green pedestrian area

59
Q

What was done in the Cheonggyech River Project

A

-22 bridges built
-rapid bus lanes added
-water pumped from nearby Hanang river
-wetlands conservationa area
-made attractive for pedestrians with recreation areas

60
Q

What are the impacts of the Cheonggyech River Project?

A

increased congestion due to overpass holding 169,000 cars a day
-18.1 million visitors yearly
-business and property prices risen
-reduction of 2.5 degrees in temp
-re-established lost habitats
-however not disabled-friendly

61
Q

What is an LA example of managing urban drainage?

A

river changed from natural and meandering to cement and controlled
-removed ecosystem
-easily destroyed by cracks
-more water volume held
-reduces floods

62
Q

What are the issues with urban waste?

A

-leads to air and water pollution
-expensive to deal with
-waste accoints for 5% of greenhouse gas emissions
-accounts for 12% of methane emissions
-waste is increasing at 7% per year

63
Q

What is the trend in urban waste?

A

increasing due to higher wealth and consumption
-increased focus on recycling
-China has fastest growth in urban waste

64
Q

What are the impacts of increasing waste?

A

-cost of collecting and treating it is really high - governments spend 20-50% of their budget on solid waste
-contributes to water, air and land pollution
-30-60% of urban waste in LIC’S is uncollected - 2012 World Bank
-In Cairo, only 40% of waste is treated accordingly

65
Q

In what ways can waste be managed/treated?

A

reduction - genereting less waste overall
Reuse - reusing product for the same use
Recycling - reduces amount of disposed waste
Recovery- reuses material for another purpose
Landfill - prduces methane and dust particles
Incineration - burning something - high pollution

66
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of incineration?

A

can reduce waste volume by 90%
can reduce toxicity
can produce energy
bottom ash can be recylced

high energy costs
pollution of air/water
not all waste is combustable
capacity limitations

67
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of landfill?

A

properly disposed of with necessary controls
different types of waste accepted

produces methane and greenhouse emissions
pollution of air/water
high transportation costs
unsightly

68
Q

What is incineration and key facts?

A

burning waste material
-can reduce volume of waste by 90%
-can generate energy
-creates air pollution

69
Q

What is recycling and key facts?

A

selective extraction of waste for a specific next use
-world market for scrap metal is at 400million tones annually ($30 billion a year)
-1% of urban population in LIC’s survive of recycling waste
-producing aluminium from recycled one requires 95% less energy than from virgin materials

70
Q

What is urban mining and key facts?

A

process of recovering compounds from buildings and waste
-greater chance of reducing landfill waste
-returns material to economy

71
Q

What is trade (regarding waste) and key facts?

A

waste moved between countries o properly dispose of it
-toxic/hazardous waste can be safely disposed of
-contamination of environment

72
Q

What is an example of a waste city?

A

Guoyu, China
-50 million tonnes of e-waste produced each year
-3rd fastest growing waste -UN 2013
-electronics contain toxic substances contaminating environment and causing health problems for workers
-Guangdong province recycles 15,000 tonnes in 5000 workshops daily
high levels of lead in blood of locals

73
Q

What is an example of a city incinerating its waste?

A

-incinerating waste since 1999
-send waste to offshore landfill that is lined with impermeable membrane to prevent leaks into water and covered with soil once reaching the same level

74
Q

What is Lansink’s Ladder?

A

The Amsterdam approach to avoid creating waste in the first place, recover valuable raw materials and generate energy by incinerating rest of waste - introduced in Dutch legislation in 1994

75
Q

What have Amsterdam done to reduce landfill?

A

-landfill tax was placed onto every tonne of material landfilled , the tax then increased each year until it was taken off as it was not necessary anymore
-landfill ban introduced containing 35 categories of waste
-Waste-to-energy strategy including incineration plants producing electricity

76
Q

Describe information of the AEB incineration plant in Amsterdam

A

-produces 1 million MWh of electricity
-creates heating for communities around it (300,000 gigajoules of heat annually)
-1.4 million tons of waste brought to plant annually
-64% of waste recycled
-plant works together with water treatment plant nearby
-avoids 438 kilotons of CO2 per year

77
Q

Did Amsterdam succeed the targets of the Landfill Directive?

A

Yes, by 2006 the country had already reached the targets that the directive set for 2016

78
Q

Why did Amsterdam need to control its waste?

A

-growing population
-diminishing amount of spare land
-need to reduce reliance on landfill
- environmental deterioration of land
-pollution and groundwater contamination

79
Q

Why did Singapore need to control its waste?

A

waste was increasing from 1260 tonnes per day in 1970 to 8559 in 2016

80
Q

What agency aided Singapore with their waste and what did they do?

A

National Environmental Agency (NEA)
-introduced an efficient waste collection and disposal system
-regulation of solid waste and illegal dumping
- appoints public waste collectors to companies that meet specific criteria (currently 4 in Singapore)
-General waste collectors that serve commercial and industrial waste

81
Q

Was the waste-to-energy incineration plant in Singapore successful?

A

-first plant commissioned in 1979
-reduced waste volume 90% and reduced landfill space

82
Q

What are the steps of waste water treatment?

A

Preliminary treatment - removing large objects through screening
Primary treatment - remaining organic matter is pulled to bottom of tank and then sprinkled in air to allow aerobic respiration so microorganisms can break down sewage
Secondary treatment - sewage sludge that sinks to bottom is fed into another tank and digested by anaerobic bacteria
Tertiary treatment - specific pollutants treated
Nutrient stripping - chemically removing nitrates/phosphates from water to prevent eutrophication
Organic matter is returned to river/sea and sludge is dried and used as organic matter for soil

83
Q

What is the cause of dereliction in urban areas?

A

-the ageing and decay of buildings
-movement of urban activities to more profitable locations
-changes in urban economy

84
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using brownfield sites?

A

-protects green belt
-improves urban environment
-reduces demand on car use
-addresses need for more homes

-can be contaminated
-not all sites are accessible
-neighbouring land could still have industrial usage

85
Q

What is an example of regeneration of brownfield sites?

A

Cardiff Bay - regenerating the Cardiff Docks where the biggest export of coal took place in 1990s
Docklands area regenerated by CBDC - Cardiff Bay Development Corporation

86
Q

What were the 5 main aims of the regeneration of Cardiff Bay?

A

-To provide an environment where people want to work, play and live
-To reunite the city of Cardiff with its waterfront
-To create job opportunities
-To achieve the highest standard of design and quality
-To establish the areas as a recognised centre of excellence and innovation in the field of urban regeneration

87
Q

What are the positives of the Cardiff Bay regeneration?

A

Completed in 1999- £13 million project
-500 acre freshwater lake with 8 miles of waterfront hoped to stimulate the future development of the bay as a tourist and leisure destination.
-14,000,000 square feet of non-housing development
-5,780 housing units were built
-31,000 new jobs were created
-£1.8 billion in private finance was invested
-200 acres of derelict land was reclaimed

88
Q

What were some of the failures of the Cardiff Bay regeneration?

A

-Only certain parts of the Bay were regenerated (e.g. the Cory’s’ Building and the Coal Exchange).
-Social inequalities persist too.
-Lloyd George Avenue - which connects the Bay to the outskirts of the city centre-has been described as a ‘one-sided road to nowhere’ due to dereliction on other side of road

89
Q

What is ecological footprint? (add an example city)

A

The amount of resources used in relation to the available resources on Earth
-London’s ecological footprint is twice the land area of the whole UK

90
Q

What are the features of sustainable cities with examples?

A

-greener built environments - using water and energy efficiently (Philippines)
-improved transport - develop transport infrastructure (Spain)
-planned expansion - encouraging compact cities (France)
-economic opportunities - creating a ‘green economy’ (South Africa)
-conserving buildings and open spaces - to be used by community (London)
-carbon-neutral development - remove CO2 from atmosphere (London)

91
Q

What has Freiburg done to be sustainable?

A

-green spaces protected and enhanced - 40% of city is forested with native trees and River Dreisam has been left unmanaged
-sustainable water supply implemented - SUDs introduced including green roofs, permeable roads and wastewater recycling
-Recycling solid waste - 350 community collection points - energy for 28,000 homes produced by incineration
-creation of 10,000 jobs in solar energy
-aim to be carbon neutral by 2038
-swapping cars to bikes

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