Contemporary urban environments

Question 1

what is urbanisation?

Answer 1

increase in the number of people living in towns + cities

Question 2

what is the order of settlements (size order from rural to urban)

Answer 2

• single isolated dwelling
• hamlet (settlement with a limited number of houses/services)
• village (e.g. Delph)
• small town (e.g. Shaw)
• large town (e.g. Oldham)
• city (e.g. Manchester)
• conurbation (place containing many boroughs/councils e.g. G.Manchester)
• millionaire city (more than 1 million people live)
• mega city (over 10 million people)
• meta city (over 20 million people)

Question 3

what is a world city?

Answer 3

a city with a great influence on a global scale because of their financial status + worldwide commercial power

unrelated to size

there are 3 at the top of the ‘global hierarchy’ (New York, London and Tokyo)

Question 4

what are cities important for?

Answer 4

the exchange of ideas + creative thinking (e.g. uni etc)

centres of political power and decision making

economic production (e.g. concentration of financial services - for example, Spinningfield in Manchester)

Question 5

Historically, what importance has urbanisation had in human affairs?

Answer 5

• infrastructure: improved public transport + increased mobility
• reducing poverty: workers are no longer tied to land + can move to a new place to work - better paid jobs - rural to urban migration
• status of women: paid employment/political status/education
• impact of fertility rates

-urban culture

-impact on mortality rates

Question 6

what is industrialisation?

Answer 6

process of transforming the economy of a nation/region from a focus on agriculture to a reliance on manufacturing (primary to secondary industry)

Question 7

what are the causes of urbanisation in HICs?

Answer 7

industrialisation led to the creation of the factories

the factory system contributed to the growth of urban areas as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of work in the factories (pull factors)

E.g. in England + Wales, the proportion of the population living in cities jumped from 17% (in 1801) to 72% (in 1891)

Question 8

In what ways are the causes of urbanisation in today’s LICs/NEEs similar/different to these causes?

Answer 8

similarities:
- both caused by rural to urban migration (push + pull factors play a big role)
- both caused by natural increase

differences:
- driven in HICs by natural economic progression (Industrial Revolution) whereas often dictated by presence of TNCs in NEEs/LICs
- HICs status means they are able to industrialise quicker

Question 9

what causes rural to urban migration?

Answer 9

caused by a number of push + pull factors…

push factors:
- overcrowding
- agricultural problems (e.g. crop failure)
- high incidence of disease and poor healthcare
- natural disasters
- civil unrest

pull factors:
- formal employment (stable income + higher paid jobs)
- informal sector employment
- better social provisions
- perceived better quality of life (better healthcare)
- social/cultural diversity

Question 10

what is urban growth?

Answer 10

the increase in total population of a town or city

Question 11

what is urban expansion?

Answer 11

the increase in size of a city

Question 12

what is suburbanisation?

Answer 12

the movement of people from living in the inner parts of a city to living on the outer edges

Question 13

what negative impacts does urban sprawl have?

Answer 13

more roads/infrastructure needed- economic + environmental - loss of green space/extra air pollution

habitat loss- environmental - displaces local species + reduces biodiversity

increased commuting- social - increases stress for people before they even start work
environmental- more cars on the road = more CO2 in atmosphere

increased air pollution- social - can lead to health issues
environmental - contributes to climate change

loss of farmland/open space - economic - can lead to loss in agricultural industry
social - can have health/mental health impacts on people

reduced urban drainage- environmental- increases surface run off as drains are blocked which can lead to flooding and water quality issues – becomes increasingly important due to pollutants from urban areas being washed into rivers or ground water

decentralisation- trying to improve economies in specific areas + creating jobs

homogenisation of the landscapes- increases similarities between towns + cities regardless of their geographical location

Question 14

what are push and pull factors for the Rio de Janeiro case study?

Answer 14

push:
- limited jobs
- low wages
- natural disasters
- poor healthcare

pull:
- better housing
- more job opportunities
- enhanced social services (e.g. healthcare)
- better transportation and communications

Question 15

Economic inequalities in Rio de Janeiro…

Answer 15

wealth is shared unequally
huge recession in 2015 increased unemployment
favela unemployment is 20%

Question 16

what are the management strategies to reduce economic inequality in Rio?

Answer 16

using education to reduce unemployment

Question 17

what environmental problems has urbanisation led to in Rio and the management strategies used?

Answer 17

atmospheric pollution- 40% of cars increase in last decade
- management: coast roads are one way during rush hour; expansion of the metro system (train + subway); toll roads to reduce traffic congestion

water pollution- due to problematic pipes
- management: ships are fined for disposing of their fuel into the bay; 12 new sewage works have been built since 2004; 5km of sewage pipes built around favelas

dereliction- can sometimes cause contaminated land
- management: treatment of land; use brownfield sites to create olympic venues (reused for community sporting activities)

Question 18

what has caused a rapid rise of megacities?

Answer 18

globalisation
economic competition
perception of a better life in cities
mass migration

Question 19

what problems occur with megacities forming in LICs/NEEs?

Answer 19

growth in population is not matched by a growth in resources + infrastructure

challenge of providing employment, housing and basic services

concerns about how city authorities can effectively govern such large cities

Question 20

what are the benefits of megacities?

Answer 20

globally:
- on average, they produce 2-3x more GDP than other cities

• centres of innovation - many solutions to global problems are trialled
• less damaging to the environment to provide transport, electricity, housing, water + sanitation for a dense urban population than a dispersed rural one

regionally:
- on average, they produce 2-3x more GPD than other cities

• offer opportunities to expand access to services such as health care and education for large numbers
• less damaging to the environment to provide transport, electricity, housing, water + sanitation for a dense urban population than a dispersed rural one
• urban dwellers have access to larger + more diversified employment markets
• better levels of employment and healthcare - can improve quality of life and empower women
• growth of large urban areas can fuel public pressure for change

Question 21

what is the link between megacities + economic development?

Answer 21

• megacities dominate national + regional economies of countries
• many companies have their HQ in megacities
• encourages population growth which leads to the desirability of goods + services
• all megacities act as service centres within the formal economic sectors
• megacities in the developing world are also important manufacturing centres (e.g. Mumbai in India/ Dhaka in Bangladesh) with thousands working in the informal sector

Question 22

Urban change in HICs (Britain)…
(past)

Answer 22

• 1851 census recorded 1/2 of Britain’s population as living in urban areas (first society in history to do so)
• Inner cities at the time were poverty stricken, life expectancy was low (30), poor sanitation, high levels of pollution (land, air and water) due to lack of legislation
• chances of employment and higher wages were greater in urban areas
• community spirit was strong + crime was low
• since Victorian times, contrasts between the rich + poor have progressively increased + diverse spatial inequalities have occurred as a result

Question 23

recent characteristic features of Britain’s inner cities…

Answer 23

• high levels of out migration
• empty + derelict properties
• low levels of educational attainment/aspirations
• high levels of unemployment
• high rates of crime, vandalism + graffiti
• low levels of participation in local democracy
• economic decline, personal poverty, social problems + environmental decay

Question 24

what is decentralisation?

Answer 24

movement of population + industry form the urban centre to outlying areas

Question 25

process of suburbanisation in HICs...

Answer 25

*began in 1830s* - few planning controls + urban growth took place along main roads **(ribbon developments)** presence of arterial routed enabled wealthier people to move out + live some distance from their place of work *by the 1940s* - this growth + growth between the 'ribbons' was a concern and led to the creation of *green belts* *during 1950/60s* - large scale construction of council housing took place on the only land available - *suburban fringes* *1970s* - move towards home ownership - led to private housing estates bring built on urban fringe - allowed people to have more land for gardens + more public open space as car ownership grew, edges of towns had space for car parking + became the favourite location for new offices, shopping centres + factories that were being built

Question 26

Didsbury….

Answer 26

prior to Industrial Revolution, it was a small agricultural hamlet with growth of railways, Didsbury was absorbed by the resultant urban sprawl, became part of city of Manchester in 1904 nowadays, one of most desirable places to live population approx 27,000 a number of business are located in Didsbury on the Towers Business Park (e.g. British Airways (consumer sales department))

Question 27

what are the **social** effects of suburbanisation? (Didsbury)

Answer 27

- the influx of newcomers results in landuse change -> new housing estates are constructed -> new services appear such as retail (e.g. Tescos, M&s simply food) and entertainment facilities (Parrs Wood entertainment complex) - social segregation becomes an issue - good schools (however can reinforce social segregation as affluent move into areas to get their kids into good schools) - 10% most deprived in UK - 1/2 of children living in central Manchester are in poverty

Question 28

what are the **economic** effects of suburbanisation? (Didsbury)

Answer 28

- highly sought after expensive housing - Didsbury over £750K for a detached family home - shops and other businesses relocate to the suburbs - town centres may go into a decline as a result - town centres respond with redevelopment schemes to revitalise the CBD - can lead to high unemployment and deprivation - Towers Business Park: businesses relocate to suburbs in search of easy access to M60 and Manchester airport - cheaper land (+ nicer environment)

Question 29

what are the **environmental** effects of suburbanisation? (Didsbury)

Answer 29

- extension of the urban area = more impermeable tarmac and concrete surfaces - increases flood risk (in the Mersey Valley area, Didsbury) - new residents and commercial developments intrude on open space/ countryside (e.g. designated *green belt* land to the south of Didsbury, bordering the river Mersey.) - wildlife habitats and small scale ecosystems may be negatively effected - *brownfield sites* become available for redevelopment (e.g. Castlefield) - congestion and air pollution

Question 30

What are edge cities?

Answer 30

self contained settlements which have emerged beyond the original city boundary + developed as cities in their own right *form largely as a result of urban sprawl*

Question 31

where do they form?

Answer 31

develop close to major roads/airports + tend to be found in close proximity to shops, offices + other businesses which decentralised from the original city may lack a clear structure but they do have a wide range of amenities (incl. shopping malls, schools + entertainment facilities)

Question 32

what are the advantages of edge cities?

Answer 32

- nicer surroundings - houses tend to be more affordable and bigger - not often tightly packed like inner cities - new jobs by attracting workers from the metropolitan areas around it leading to urban development + business expansion

Question 33

what are the disadvantages of edge cities?

Answer 33

- social segregation -> this is where the wealthy have moved to the new suburban settlements leaving the poor + disadvantaged sections of society in the original city boundaries - people move to these areas + can still work in cities thus more cars on the road - more CO2

Question 34

why are edge cities an effect of suburbanisation?

Answer 34

suburbanisation = the physical spreading of a city into surrounding countryside areas (urban sprawls) = edge cities as people move out of inner city areas into suburban areas = more demand for services rising in these areas = edge cities become functioning area of its own

Question 35

what is deindustrialisation?

Answer 35

refers to loss of jobs in the manufacturing sector - occurred in UK end of 20th C

Question 36

why did deindustrialisation occur in UK?

Answer 36

- fall in employment in traditional manufacturing industries (coal, steam power, railways etc) - between 1961 + 1981 >1.6m manufacturing jobs were lost in major urban areas - 75% jobs lost nationally

Question 37

what are the causes of deindustrialisation?

Answer 37

- mechanisation: cheaper to use machines for produce rather than people - competition from abroad: rapidly industrialising economies (India, China, Taiwan, S. Korea etc) - reduced demand for trad products as new materials and tech developed