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contemporary urban environments 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Why was 2008 a significant year?

A

by the end of 2008, 50% of people in the world lived in urban areas.

it was predicted that it would rise to 70% by 2050 even though cities occupy inly about 3% of the earths land surface.

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2
Q

what is meant by an urban area?

A

a built up area in which people live. (town or a city)

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3
Q

what is meant by urbanisation?

A

the growth in the population of a country’s population living in urban areas.

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4
Q

what is the cycle of urbanisation?

A
  1. urbanisation
  2. suburbanisation
  3. urban sprawl
  4. counter urbanisation
  5. reurbanisation
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5
Q

what happens at the urbanisation stage of the COU?

A
  • increase in the proportion of people who live in urban settlements

the earliest stage in the growth of cities. it involves:
- rural to urban migration: mass movement of people from countryside to cities
- industrialisation: the growth of industry
- improvements in transport followed trains and cars developed quickly

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6
Q

when was the UK’s Industrial Revolution?

A

1760-1840

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7
Q

what happens at the suburbanisation stage of the COU?

A

the outward spread of built up areas, often at lower densities. people moving from the urban centre to the stage

this involves:
- social segregation as rich, with families move to more desirable areas (white flight)
- the growth of cities physically, spreading into the greenfield land around the city
- improvements in transport lead to a surge in commuting, car ownership more widespread, motorways, more complex rail network.

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8
Q

what happens at the urban sprawl stage of the COU?

A
  • continued outward spread consuming farmland and smaller towns / villages leading to vast conurbations

this involves:
- continued increased improvements in transport
- improvements in communication allow working from home
- decentralisation as old industries begin to shut down
- changes in wealth and lifestyle
- inner city issues, i.e. poverty and deprivation

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9
Q

what happens at the counter urbanisation stage of the COU?

A

the movement of people and employment from major settlements to small settlements beyond the built up area.

THIS ONLY HAPPENS IN HIC CITIES AT PRESENT

it involves:
- changes in wealth, transport, lifestyle and communications
- changes in surrounding rural settlements (dormitory villages)
- changes in working habits

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10
Q

what happens at the reurbanisation stage of the COU?

A
  • urban resurgence
  • this can be seen in most western cities to a lesser or greater extent
  • it can sometimes be planned or can be a more random event over a longer period of time
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11
Q

what is meant by urban resurgence?

A

the movement of people and employment back into its centres leading to regeneration.

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12
Q

what is meant by urban growth?

A

the increase in the total population of a town or city.

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13
Q

what are the causes of urban growth?

A
  1. natural increase - the difference between the birth and death rate
  2. rural to urban migration - the movement of people from the countryside to the city
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14
Q

why does natural population growth contribute to urban growth?

A
  • urban areas tend to have higher percentage of younger people. they are the most fertile in the population.
  • natural increase is the difference between the birth rate and the death rate
  • in Mumbai, the fertility rate is 2.6 children per woman, with a declining death rate also
  • Nappy Valley
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15
Q

why does rural to urban migration contribute to urban growth?

A

large numbers of people migrate from villages in the countryside to the main cities in search of a better life.

they migrate due to issues in the countryside and the attraction of a new life in the city.

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16
Q

what are examples of push factors?

A
  • natural disasters such as floods, tropical storms, earthquakes. people flee rural areas and don’t return.
  • wars and civil strife, eg. Sierra Leone
  • high levels of local diseases and lack of medical provision
  • population growth. same area of land has to support increased numbers. i.e. overarming, soil erosion and low yields.
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17
Q

what are examples of pull factors?

A
  • earning money from the informal sector, e.g. prostitution, taxi services, selling goods on the street
  • perceived better quality of life, fed by images in the media.
  • employment in factories and services industries, which is better paid than work in rural areas. there is an increased demand for unskilled labour in cities.
  • better quality social provisions. e.g. education, healthcare, entertainment.
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18
Q

what are the main consequences of urban growth?

A
  • urban sprawl
  • shortage of housing in LICs
  • shortage of affordable housing in HICs
  • lack of urban services and waste disposal
  • unemployment and underemployment
  • transport issues
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19
Q

what is urban sprawl?

A

defined as the spread of an urban area into the surrounding countryside.

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20
Q

why is urban sprawl a consequence of urban growth?

A
  • requires more roads and infrastructure
  • the reach into rural areas is one of the main causes of wildlife habitat loss
  • causes more commuting from the suburbs to the city and thus more fuel consumption and traffic congestion
  • can increase air pollution since a more car dependent lifestyle leads to an increase in fossil fuel consumption and emission of GG. areas may also experience higher temperatures.
  • contributed to loss of farmland and open spaces, loss of fresh, local food. = greater food miles.
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21
Q

why is a shortage of housing in LICs a consequence of urban growth?

A
  • population density tend to be high in urban areas and one of the consequences of this is a shortage in accommodation. leads to the presence of large areas of informal and often inadequate housing.
  • these normally Devon on the city edge or in areas if low land value and prone to environmental hazards, e.g. flooding
  • tend to have limited infrastructure
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22
Q

why is a shortage of affordable housing in HIC’s a consequence of urban growth?

A
  • in the UK, rising demand for accommodation has led to a dramatic increase in both house prices and rental costs
  • in parts of London, house prices rose by 50% between 2010-2015. was fuelled by in-migration, gentrification and purchasing of properties by wealthy foreign investors
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23
Q

why is a lack of urban services and waste disposal a consequence of urban growth?

A
  • financial restraints in LICs can result in lack of basic services such as water + electricity.
  • maintenance of infrastructure, e.g. road, sewers and drainage is also limited. can result in traffic congestion, polluted watercourses, flooding and disease.
  • waste disposal increases every year. there are physical, economic and environmental restraints on its disposal.
  • in Addis Ababa in Ethiopia, COA only able to deal with 2/3 of rubbish created.
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24
Q

why is recycling seen as an opportunity in Nairobi?

A
  • old car tyres used when cut up to make shoes
  • washing machine doors are used as kitchen bowls
  • food waste is collected for animals and used on vegetation plots
  • glass bottles are tenured to stores for selling
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25
Q

why is unemployment and underemployment a consequence of urban growth?

A
  • because there is so many young people, there is much pressure to create jobs
  • unemployment is typically high although official data is hard to find and many migrants find informal employment
  • underemployment
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26
Q

what is meant by underemployment?

A

refers to a situation in which a person is not doing work that makes full use of their skills

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27
Q

why are transport issues a consequence of urban growth?

A
  • the processes of urbanisation and suburbanisation have led to increase traffic in cities across the world
  • this has created more congestion + pollution, damaging human health and wasting billions of £ in lost productivity
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28
Q

what is meant by a megacity?

A

a metropolitan area with a total population in excess of 10 million people

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29
Q

how many megacities currently exist?

A

38

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30
Q

what is meant by a world city?

A

cities which are seen to have an important role in the global economic system.

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31
Q

how are world cities categorised?

A

world cities are categorised into:
- alpha
- beta
- gamma

the alpha cities are the most important in the roles of the global economic system and are further categorised into:
- alpha ++
- alpha +
- alpha -

alpha++ is most important

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32
Q

what is meant by hyper urbanisation?

A

where the increase in the urban population is happening so fast that the city cannot cope with the needs of the people.

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33
Q

what are the three main contemporary urban processes in HIC cities?

A
  1. suburbanisation
  2. counter urbanisation
  3. urban resurgence
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34
Q

what is suburbanisation?

A

the increased movement of people/ service and industries from the centres of inner urban areas outwards, towards and onto the edges of the built up area.

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35
Q

when did suburbanisation begin?

A
  • the suburbs continued to grow rapidly in all British cities in the inter-war and post-war periods.
  • during this period, there were fewer planning regulations and urban growth took the form of ribbon development along main roads.
  • the period 1800-1900 saw very rapid industrialisation
  • the industry could pay the most for city centre sites
  • unplanned housing developed around factories
  • middle class families began to move into suburbs = white flight
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36
Q

what are the causes of suburbanisation?

A
  1. decentralisation
  2. attractions of edge city locations
  3. de-industrialisation
  4. technology
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37
Q

why is de-centralisation a cause of suburbanisation?

A
  • shift of jobs towards service sector
  • often tend to be in non-centralised locations to make use of cheaper land
  • many service industries therefore located in the suburbs
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38
Q

why are attractions of edge city locations a cause of suburbanisation?

A
  • access. e.g. motorways
  • room to expand
  • green space
  • cheaper land
  • pleasant environment
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39
Q

why is de-industrialisation a cause of suburbanisation?

A
  • loss of manufacturing jobs in inner cities
  • workers often lacked skills for jobs in service sectors
  • inner cities experience a spiral of problems, e.g. unemployment, poverty.
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40
Q

why is technology a cause of suburbanisation?

A
  • advances in transport meant people could commute longer distances
  • ICT and communications developments meant more people can work from home
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41
Q

what are social effects of suburbanisation?

A
  • urban sprawl
  • development of science parks, shopping malls
  • loss of social cohesion and identification as people dispersed through the city
  • development of brownfield sites for decentralised employment
  • suburban dwellers largely white middle class leaving some segregated inner city areas. AKA white flight.
  • urban decay
  • gentrification
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42
Q

what are economic effects of suburbanisation?

A
  • urban sprawl
  • development of science parks, shopping malls
  • cost of cheaper land in the suburbs
  • edge cities
  • suburban dwellers largely white middle class leaving some segregated inner city areas. AKA white flight.
  • development of brownfields sites for decentralised employment
  • gentrification
  • urban decay
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43
Q

what are environmental effects of suburbanisation?

A
  • development of Greenfield sites for new housing estates
  • green belt policies
  • cost of cheaper land in the suburbs
  • edge cities
  • traffic congestion. increase in GG and pollution due to increased commuting.
  • former industrial areas have a negative environment with lots of derelict factories.
  • development of brownfield sites for decentralised employment
  • infilling
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44
Q

what is meant by infilling?

A

the use of open space within a conurbation to build new houses or services, often close to where green belts restrict outward growth.

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45
Q

what is meant by counter urbanisation?

A

the movement of people from urban areas into the rural areas surrounding the city (beyond the green belt)

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46
Q

when did counter urbanisation begin?

A

began in Britain in the 1960s in particular, and by 1990 a net movement of 1700 people per year were leaving for rural areas.

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47
Q

why is counter urbanisation happening?

A

in England, green belts were established from 1995 to simply prevent the physical growth of large, built up areas; to prevent neighbouring cities and towns from merging.

this meant that the suburbs soon became full, and little land was left for new development.

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48
Q

who is leaving the suburbs and why?

A
  • the most affluent and mobile people
  • families with children (to avoid the possible disadvantages of city locations)
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49
Q

what factors have helped counter urbanisation?

A

technological change - fax, email, phones, internet. led to the growth of teleworking or electronic commuting. encourages rural living + work from home

freezers, telephone, TV - allow rural lifestyle without being isolated.

improvements in road, motorway networks - make commuting easier, encouraging people to move out from the cities

urban renewal processes - during 50s + 60s meant that due to slum clearance large numbers of people had to move out from inner city slum areas. most were rehoused on council estates on edges of cities or in overspill settlements.

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50
Q

what case study is used for suburbanisation?

A

St Ives

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51
Q

where is St Ives?

A

St Ives is in Cambridgeshire, 70 miles north of London.

It is 18miles from Cambridge along the A14.

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52
Q

why is Cambridge attractive to commuters?

A

it has good road access and rail links to Cambridge and London.

many people commute into Cambridge. around 1/4 of working population commute into London each day.

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53
Q

what are push factors of St Ives?

A
  • flooding problems. st ives is on the River Great Ouse and has a history of flooding problems. as demand for housing grows, new housing has been built on the banks of the river in the centre of town and floodplain. poses great risk.
  • fear of crime.
  • expensive to repair old houses.
  • village becoming dormitory settlements.
  • traffic congestion and parking shortages.
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54
Q

what are positive consequences of suburbanisation for St Ives?

A
  • shops & services. now more shops + services. such as clothes hops and cafes and restaurants.
  • journey times are quicker due to new railway lines which are electrified.
  • new services to support growing population.
  • house owners benefit from increased value of their property.
  • migrants bring business with them creating employment.
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55
Q

what are the pull factors of St Ives?

A
  • retirement.
  • housing in area is affordable. e.g. value for money. in Surbiton, £300,000 buys 2 bed. would buy 4 bed in St Ives.
  • work flexibility due to better communication.
  • more schools. plans to expand primary schools to make 240 new places available.
  • of 200 planned new homes = 75 will be affordable housing for those on lower incomes.
  • houses in smaller settlements and rural areas are less cramped. houses are bigger w/ more open space.
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56
Q

what are negative consequences of suburbanisation for St Ives?

A
  • traffic. congestion is an issue, esp during rush hour on A14.
  • air and noise pollution increase.
  • has caused conflicts between developer and environmental protection groups.
  • rural roads and infrastructure may struggle to cope with additional traffic.
  • rising house prices. avg detached house in 2000 = £130,000 to £210,000 in 2010. commuters earn higher wages than locals. can afford higher prices.
  • green belt being built on.
  • loss of community spirit.
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57
Q

what are management techniques used to manage suburbanisation in St Ives?

A
  • flood protection. after flooding in 1998 and 2003, protection costing £8.8 million was completed in 2007. e.g. flood walls and new embankments.
  • transport. £116 million guided busway liking St Ives and Huntingdon and Cambridge to reduce congestion.
  • new houses. plans were approved in 2010 to build 200 new homes in St Ives.
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58
Q

what is urban resurgence?

A

the movement of people back to live in old, inner city areas which have been redeveloped.

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58
Q

what are the 2 main processes of urban resurgence?

A
  • gentrification
  • property led regeneration schemes
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59
Q

what is gentrification?

A

the in movement by individuals or groups of upper middle class white individuals into older housing that was in a state of disrepair and the improvement of that housing.

60
Q

what is meant by property led regeneration schemes?

A

the in movement by people as part of large scale investment programmes aimed at urban regeneration in a wider social and economic sense.
e.g. London Docklands, Birmingham.

61
Q

where is Notting Hill? why is it significant?

A

A well known location within West London. it was mace famous by the annual carnival and latterly the film, ‘Notting Hill’.

it developed in the mid 19th century when grand houses began to be built on the fringes of an area best known for its brickfields.

62
Q

why did Notting Hill’s character change?

A

Notting Hill’s character changed in the years after WW2 as the spacious houses were divided into rental units for poor tenants: a large amount of recent migrants from the West Indies.

during the 1950’s there were some notorious episodes of racial tension in the area.

63
Q

at what time did other locations start to be gentrified along with Notting Hill?

A

in the 1960’s and 70’s, locations such as Primrose Hill, Camden Town and Holland Park began to be gentrified.

64
Q

what case study is used for gentrification?

A

islington

65
Q

why is Islington a suitable place for gentrification to take place?

A
  • A10 provides easy access into London
  • tube line
  • land is cheaper
66
Q

what is meant by deindustrialization?

A

refers to the loss of jobs in the manufacturing sector.

67
Q

by the 1980’s, many of the other industrial cities were experiencing decline of manufacturing. why was this?

A
  • mechanisation: most firms can produce their own goods more cheaply by using machines rather than people.
  • competition from abroad: mainly Taiwan, China and South Korea.
  • reduced demand for traditional products.
68
Q

what is meant by decentralisation?

A

as the inner city declines, new investment goes to the edges of cities.

69
Q

what are economic impacts of decentralisation an deindustrialization?

A
  • increased demand for benefits
  • loss of jobs and disposable income
  • loss of taxes and decline of services
  • increase in unemployment
  • decreased property prices and out migration especially young or working age.
70
Q

what are social impacts of decentralisation an deindustrialization?

A
  • loss of confidence and morale
  • increased levels of crime and family breakdowns, substance abuse
  • increased levels of deprivation
  • de multiplier effect in urban areas
  • increase in unemployment
71
Q

what are environmental impacts of decentralisation an deindustrialization?

A
  • derelict land and buildings
  • deteriorating infrastructure
  • increase in noise, land and water pollution and traffic congestion.
  • long term pollution from dirty industries
  • decrease in maintenance of local housing caused by local incomes
72
Q

what has the link between deindustrialisation and decentralisation is Sheffield been?

A

there has been deindustrialisation in Sheffield.

this has resulted in decentralisation to the edge of Sheffield with the development of the Advanced Manufacturing Park. (AMP)

73
Q

what case study is used for deindustrialisation and decentralisation in Sheffield?

A

Sheffield

74
Q

Describe the process of deindustrialization in Sheffield.

A
  • M Thatcher’s conservative government elected in 1979. privatised key national industries, e.g. coal and steel.
  • factory closes in S. began in 1970’s and accelerated through early 1980’s.
  • local unemployment rate rose above national avg for first time in 81.
  • by 1984, unemployment stood at 16%. manufacturing industry which employed 50% of city in 1971, employed just 24% by 1984.
  • country was in deep recession due to massive deindustrialisation.
  • S started 80’s with same rate of employment’s the country but as 80’s progressed it lagged far behind.
  • almost caught up in 2013.
  • meanwhile, volume of manufacturing was ahead of avg in 1980, then fell in 1990, steady decline to 2010 then increased.
75
Q

what have been the successes of the AMP?

A
  • successes are based on innovation
  • often employees are either the best or only qualified people at what they do.
  • there is specific technology and expertise S city region that isn’t available anywhere else. particularly applied use of high quality materials in precision industries.
  • technology developed in AMP is used in leaning edge products such as formula one.
  • Boeing Advanced Blade Casting factory + World Centre of Materials.
76
Q

how can decentralisation be seen in Sheffield?

A
  • in the late 1990’s, advanced manufacturing was recognised as being the city’s path to prosperity.
  • new partnerships between public and private sectors, the entrepreneurial focus of the city council and survival of Sheffield helped pave the way for the creation of AMP.
  • industrial spaces, infrastructure, research and development strengths of city region attracted both talent and investment back in the city.
  • made in Sheffield trademark = quality innovation
  • this helped to attract investment in response to Sheffields particular skills base and manufacturing tradition.
77
Q

what issues are still seen in Sheffield?

A
  • many of the men who lost jobs through deindustrialisation have continued to suffer from long term unemployment.
  • many of the service jobs created are part time or temporary
  • the number of service jobs created has not always made up for the loss of manufacturing
  • inner city locations have been avoided by both service industries and new manufacturing companies leading to a continued inner city decline.
  • 900 hectares of land is still disused, derelict, industrial sites.
  • sheffield is the is the 57th most deprived local authority in England.
    unemployment is still 5.3%.
78
Q

what is an urban policy?

A

strategies used by local or national government to develop urban areas and reduce urban issues.

79
Q

why were urban policies created?

A

since 1979, during the peak of deindustrialisation and urban decline, successive governments have introduced various policies to address urban issues.

80
Q

what is an issue with urban policies?

A

we consider ‘desirable’ changes over time.

also - global economic and social changes play a major role in shaping what a place needs.

81
Q

what urban policy was used from 1979-1991?

A

emphasis on private sector to regenerate the inner city.
private companies/ corporations encouraged to redevelop run down inner city areas.

lead to the rise of
URBAN DEVELOPMENT CORPORATIONS

82
Q

what urban policy was used in 1991-1997?

A

partnership schemes and competition led policies, e.g. City Challenge.

83
Q

what urban events occurred in 1991-1997 that were instrumental for the urban policy?

A
  • cities had to compete with each other for government regeneration funds.
  • competition led to more successful schemes.
  • resources were thinly spread across large areas.
83
Q

what urban events occurred from 1979-1991 that were instrumental for the urban policy?

A
  • people were encouraged to spend money on buying land, building infrastructure and marketing to attract private investors.
  • effective in attracting new businesses to run down areas and improving the environment in those areas.
  • did little to tackle social problems.
84
Q

what urban policy was used from 1997-2000s?

A

area based initiatives: narrowing the gap in key social and economic indicators between the most deprived neighbourhoods and the rest of the country, e.g. New Deal for Communities.

84
Q

what urban events occurred from 1997-2000s that were instrumental for the urban policy?

A
  • designed to transform the 39 most deprived neighbourhoods ad improve the lives of those living within them.
  • between 2002 and 2008, areas saw improvements in 32 of 32 core indicators.
  • more of a change for the people, not the place.
85
Q

what is the history of the London Docklands?

A
  • was once the largest and most successful trading port in the world, it employed thousands of people and international trade
  • WW2 affected British economy and infrastructure beyond repair, leaving the docklands empty.
85
Q

why was regeneration needed for London Docklands?

A
  • 60% of area was derelict
  • unemployment rates rose to 17.8%
  • containerisation meant ships could no longer fit into the docks.
  • air travel was faster, leading to a decline in ship transportation.
  • the blitz caused damage that led to high levels of crime and starvation.
86
Q

who redeveloped the London docklands?

A

in 1981, London Docklands Development Corporation was set up to improve the economic, social and environmental issues.

it transformed 8.5sq mile area of the docklands.

during 1990, the LDDC spent £6 million weekly.

86
Q

what did the LDDC do to improve the London Docklands?

A
  • 22,000 new houses built since 1981.
  • £7.7 billion invested in the private sector
  • 700 new firms located in the area
  • 600 hectares reclaimed
  • £20 million spent on environmental and community projects, e.g. parks
87
Q

what were the successes of the LDDC?

A
  • improved failing house market
  • improved accessibility around, to and from the docklands
  • contains largest banks, e.g. Barclays
  • major tourist attraction. 2 million tourists per year
  • better environmental quality
87
Q

what were failures of the LDDC?

A
  • increased air and noise pollution from traffic
  • 50% of jobs we’re taken by newcomers rather than locals
  • loss of community
  • types of jobs, and skill types that were available changed.
  • small businesses couldn’t compete with large corporations.
88
Q

where is Hulme and what is the history of the area?

A
  • Hulme is a district in Manchester
  • it has an industrial heritage, well known for its cotton mills and coal mining in the IR
  • at that time housing wallow quality Victorian era slums
88
Q

why did Hulme need regenerating?

A
  • heavily bombed in WW2, causing damage
  • in 1960’s, Hulme crescents were built. aimed to house 13,000 people but had to be demolished due to safety issues. was the main reason for regeneration.
89
Q

who regenerated Hulme?

A

City Challenge Scheme
- a redevelopment scheme which focused on the housing and facilities of Hulme.
- initial grant = £37.5 million
- in 1992, plans were drawn to build 3000 new homes, new shopping areas, roads and community facilities

90
Q

what was done in the city challenge scheme?

A
  • scheme was based on 7 different areas, e.g. Rolls Crescent, Hulme park and Zion arts centre
  • homes for change:
  • Hulme park - first large scale park. cost over £50 million to build.
  • Zion arts centre - provides dance and music facilities.
    rolls crescent - 67 new houses built, to promote community
91
Q

what were social success of the city challenge scheme?

A
  • population growth of 3.3% since 1992.
  • 80% of original goals have been met
  • 40% reduction in crime since 90s
  • existing houses improved and new built
92
Q

what were economic successes of the city challenge scheme?

A
  • many jobs created and 300 new businesses established
  • infrastructure emphasised permeability in hopes to reduce crime
  • birley fields developed = attracted big corporations like Michelin
92
Q

what were environmental successes of the city challenge scheme?

A
  • variation in styles of building = visually appealing
  • Hulme Arch = symbol of regeneration
93
Q

what were failures of the city challenge scheme?

A
  • many residents dont have high enough skills to access new jobs. so forced elsewhere
  • local opinions and views were often ignored leading to tension between council and residents
  • unemployment rate is still 5-6 times higher than national avg
  • 20% of goals haven’t been met
94
Q

why did Plymouth need regenerating?

A
  • one of the most deprived neighbourhoods
  • crime and fear of crime
  • poor health linked to deprivation
  • poor quality of existing housing stock
  • low levels of education and employment
  • transport issues
95
Q

what was done to generate Plymouth?

A
  • begun in 2007. demolition of davenport wall. the project was delivered in 13 phases over 10 years.
  • work stalled temporarily in economic downturn of 2009 but started again due to a £2.9 million cash injection in 2010.
  • costed £70 million
96
Q

who regenerated Plymouth?

A

Redrow

97
Q

what were successes of the redraw regeneration scheme?

A
  • 464 new homes have been buikt
  • 150 year old park rebuilt
  • 3 metre wall taken down
  • improved transport
  • less pollution from increased pedestrianisation
  • all new houses built from sustainable materials
98
Q

what were failures of Plymouth regeneration?

A
  • using brownfield sites to renovate was expensive as clean was required
  • lots of older residents moved
  • making changes increased CO2 as much unused material went to landfill sites
99
Q

what is urban form?

A

relates to the physical characteristics that go towards making an urban area.

this will include:
- its size
- its shape
- its population density
- configuration of the city

100
Q

what are characteristics of world cities?

A
  • a variety of international financial services. headquarters of several MNCs
  • important roles in the global economic system
  • high quality educational institutions, including renowned universities and international student attendance
  • high % of residents employed in tertiary and information sector
  • existence of financial HQ
  • considerable decision making power at a global level
  • centres of new ideas and innovation in business, economics, politics ad culture
101
Q

what physical factors are important when determining urban form?

A
  • land type
  • dry points
  • topography
  • wet points
  • availability of natural resources
  • gap towns
101
Q

what human factors are important when determining urban form?

A
  • infrastructure
  • transport links
  • planning
  • government policy
  • land value
  • trading centres
102
Q

what is meant by land type?

A

e.g. swamps and wetland can limit urban growth

103
Q

what is meant by dry points?

A

areas that are away from the risk of flooding - this may change with sea level rise in the future.

104
Q

what is meant by topography in relation to urban form?

A

steep slopes are harder to build on and less accessible. flat land is far easier to develop an urban area on.

105
Q

what is meant by a wet point?

A

areas that have a good water supply

106
Q

what is meant by availability of natural resources in relation to urban form?

A

coal, metal encourages the growth of cities and populations. however, this is less important today with the rise of the service sector.

107
Q

what is a gap town?

A

a town located in-between two areas of high land.

108
Q

what is meant by infrastructure in relation to urban growth?

A

e.g. transport links. motorways can lead to linear growth.

109
Q

what is meant by government policy in relation to urban growth?

A

the focus of regeneration will often result from government ideologies at the time.

110
Q

what is meant by transport links in relation to urban growth?

A

connection via road, rail, sea and air greatly increase the likelihood of growth in an area.

this was especially important before the internet when access to and from places of work was a major consideration for residents.

111
Q

what is meant by planning in relation to urban growth?

A

e.g. developing countries have unplanned expansion of slums. developed countries have more geometric form. e.g. Paris, Barcelona.

112
Q

what is meant by land value in relation to urban growth?

A

e.g. highest value land is often within the city centre and so profitable businesses locate here.

113
Q

what is meant by trading centres in relation to urban growth?

A

as areas grow, as a result of trade, increasingly on a global scale, historically often coastal ports.

114
Q

what is meant by land use?

A

the way that land is being utilised in urban areas.

generally they are recognised in three main areas of land use:
1. residential (areas of housing, flats)
2. industry (areas of factories and warehouses)
3. business/commerce

115
Q

why do patterns like residential, industry and business exist?

A

in many cities, business/commerce/retail is located in or near CBD.

the CBD is very valuable for them because traditionally it is the most accessible area to large populations which is vital to department stores as they require large footfall to generate turnover.

as a result, they are willing and able to pay very high land rent value to maximise potential of their site.

as you move out from the CBD, commerce is unwilling to pay as much for the site and this declines rapidly.

industry is willing to pay, more land available and are near CBD.

as you move further out, land is less attractive to industry and business. householders purchase this land.

this is why inner city areas are more densely populated terraces and flats and suburbs are less densely populated.

116
Q

what are positives of urban land-use models?

A
  • good starting point to compare urban form between cities
  • do show some common recognisable patterns
  • most western citied show some likeliness to the models
  • based on academic studies
116
Q

what are features of new/ modern urban landscapes?

A
  • town centre mixes use development
  • edge cities
  • cultural and heritage quarters
  • fortress developments
  • gentrified areas
116
Q

why do specific features of new urban landscapes occur?

A
  • designed to help prevent/ address CBD decline
  • they are occurring due to stricter control placed on out of town development
  • many cities are encouraging the development of other functions than retail t increase the attention of city centre, e.g. Think Tank in Birmingham.
117
Q

what is hostile architecture?

A

an urban design that uses elements of the built environment to purposefully guide or restrict behaviour.

it often targets people who use or rely on public space more than others, such as youth or poor people.

118
Q

what examples are there of hostile architecture?

A
  • use of music/ sounds
  • lighting
  • anti-sleeping spikes
  • street furniture
119
Q

how can music and sounds be used as hostile architecture?

A
  • some businesses play classical music as a deterrent, on the theory that youths don’t want to hang out or talk over it
  • includes high frequency sonic buzz generators that are only audible to young people.
120
Q

how can lighting be used as hostile architecture?

A
  • primary association with street lights is to deter crime and make us feel safe
  • housing estates put up pink lighting aimed to highlight teenage blemishes
  • no data/ title data to show that these work
  • blue lightings used in public restrooms to deter intravenous drug users. makes it hard to see veins
121
Q

how can anti-sleeping spikes be used as hostile architecture?

A
  • non-negotiable
  • it is hard to argue against or reverse
  • used to keep people from urinating in dark city corners, while others are aimed at stopping people from sleeping on the streets
122
Q

how can street furniture be used as hostile architecture?

A
  • most common of unpleasant design critiques
  • some benches are mounted sp high that sitters feet wont touch the floor, being uncomfortable after a while
  • shared seats are barely benches at all, just slim slats to stand and rest against
  • Camden Bench
123
Q

what is a fortress development?

A
  • landscapes deigned for security, which can involve deliberate segregation of people to keep others safe.

includes:
- CCTV
- railing and fences around public spaces
- mosquito alarms
- street lights
- barriers

123
Q

what is a town centre mixed use development?

A
  • designed to help prevent and address CBD decline
  • occurring due to stricter controls placed on our of town developments
  • many cities are encouraging the development of other functions than retail to increase the attraction of the city centre
  • street entertainment
  • nightlife
124
Q

what is a cultural/heritage quarter?

A
  • a prerequisite for a cultural quarter is the presence of cultural production (making objects, goods or products) or consumption (galleries, shows)
  • a heritage quarter focuses on the history of the area based around small scale industries (e.g. Jewellery Quarter in Birmingham)
  • these areas make use of long term associations with certain things.
125
Q

what are gentrified areas?

A
  • individuals who purchase and renovate property and industrial space to make it more valuable and appealing.
  • can end up pricing, long term locals on low incomes, out of market
  • it is desirable as it reduces commuting time as new residents will be living in the heart of the urban area.
126
Q

what is an edge city?

A
  • self contained settlements which have emerged beyond the original city boundary and developed into cities in their own right.
  • occurs because of urban sprawl
  • e.g. LA
  • usually develop close to major roads or airports
  • have been linked to extreme social segregation.

suburban downtowns, often located near key freeway intersections, often with:
- office complexes
- shopping centres
- hotels
- restaurants
- entertainment facilities
- sports complexes

127
Q

what is a post modern western city?

A

a urban form associated with changes in urban structure and architectural design, reflecting the changed social and economic conditions of the late 20th century in some western cities.

128
Q

what are the characteristics of PMWCs?

A
  • Fragmentation
  • Globalisation
  • Simulation
  • Beautification
  • Fortification
  • Information
  • Gentrification
  • Decentralisation
129
Q

what is meant by fragmentation as a characteristic of PMWCs?

A

cities are more ethnically diverse but social and cultural inequalities, and segregation are more common
- the division between rich and poor is often stark and planned, resulting in areas of extreme wealth and areas of extreme poverty

130
Q

what is meant by globalisation as a characteristic of PMWCs?

A
  • shops, services and businesses are global brands and companies, rather than local. this has led to the clone town.
  • the high street begins to die
  • a service based economy that focuses on niche markets. telecommunications dominate.
131
Q

what is meant by simulation as a characteristic of a PMWC?

A
  • buildings often simulate heritage or other famous buildings and places.
  • cities planned in fragments, and focusing on aesthetic needs rather than social needs.
  • buildings are often iconic and architecturally unusual, often resulting in shock.
132
Q

what is meant by beautification as a characteristic of PMWCs?

A
  • architecture is more of an expression of art than function in PMWCs.
  • it is very varied with decorative ornamentation more common, often linked to the heritage of the city.
133
Q

what is meant by fortification as a characteristic of PMWCs?

A
  • security is key concern in PMWCs, so fortress landscapes are common.
134
Q

what is meant by information as a characteristic of PMWCs?

A
  • PMWCs are dominated by the service ad knowledge economies - many people are employed in these sectors, with global economies commonly located in these cities.
135
Q

what is meant by gentrification as a characteristic of PMWCs?

A
  • this is a common process leading to change in the social landscapes of cities.
  • it also contributes to the increased polarisation between people in cities in terms if wealth and access to services.
136
Q

what is meant by decentralisation as a characteristic of PMWCs?

A
  • edge cities are commonly associated with PMWCs especially as the term was first used in North America to refer to cities like LA.

human geography (3 decks)

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