Contemporary models of psychology Flashcards
Contemporary models of psychological disorders are…
Integrative models as multiple processes contribute to psychological disorders Biological Psychological (learning) Social/Interpersonal Cultural
Genes are blueprints for…
the production of a protein or enzyme
Human Genome Project discovered that…
Coding sequences of DNA account for less than 2% of genome
Non-coding regions (98% of genome) - responsible for proteins that turn on and off specific genes
Acetylation
attachment of an Acetyl group to a histone
Associated with greater gene activity
Histones
DNA is warped around histones. These histones are proteins that give structure to chromosomes
Methylation
attachment of a methyl group to part of the DNA code
Associated with gene inactivity
Epigenetics and examples of factors
The study on how internal and external factors affect gene expression without altering DNA
And The resulting changes can be transmitted between generations
Examples: Diet, toxins, hormones, Life events
Epigenetics evidence
- Dutch hunger winter lead to the DNA methylation of genes responsible for metabolism for generations
- Twins- genetically identical at birth, diverge over time
Epigenetic regulation is most strong…
Environmental exposures have greatest effects during embryo development and early childhood
Epigenetic regulation and childhood
Childhood adversity predicts risk for and severity of many psychological disorders
ADHD, Borderline Personality Disorder, Depression, Bipolar disorder
childhood adversity causes what mechanisms of epigenetics?
Childhood adversity may cause:
- greater prevalence of methylation of serotonin genes
- Methylation of critical serotonin genes
- Serotonin Methylation acts as mediator
Serotonin is important in
Serotonin important in formation of neural circuits & modulation
What adversities can cause epigenetics changes for example?
Physical abuse and number of mood episodes - methylate serotonin genes –> Serotonin is important in formation of neural circuits & modulation
Prenatal exposure to depressed/anxious mood in mothers –> DNA methylation at the glucocorticoid (stress-related hormone) receptor gene –> Increased HPA axis stress reactivity in babies
Alcohol consumption
produces epigenetic changes that contribute to the increased craving of alcohol
Heritability of psychological Disorders
Do not follow Mendelian patterns as there are multiple genes and epigenetic influences (each with small contribution)
Genetic contributions to
- personality and cognitive abilities: 30% to 50%.
- psychological disorders: 40% and 50%
Neurochemical circuits are ______ that can ______.
Bands of neurotransmitters that flow through the brain.
Different circuits can enhance or inhibit each other
Glutamate, function
Most prominent excitatory neurotransmitter
Important for neural communication, memory formation, learning, & regulation
Stimulation of glutamate results
Overstimulation of glutamate results in excitotoxicity and cell death
Under-stimulation leads to thin dendrites:, Which Lowers memory abilities & emotion regulatio
Glutamate receptors
6 families of receptors, multiple subtypes
Glutamate pathways regions
thalamus, striatum, cerebral cortex, subthalamic nucleus, substantia nigra, globus pallidus
GABA receptors
2 major receptors with multiple subtypes
Gamma aminobutyric acid - GABA - function
Main inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS
Reduces arousal
Tempers (neutralizes?) emotional responses
Inhibits behaviors
GABA pathway regions
hippocampus, olfactory bulb, frontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, cerebellum
Serotonin - function
Stabilizes information flow to regulate behavior, emotions and thought processes
Coordinates goal-directed motor responses
Serotonin - effect of levels
High levels: withdrawal and inhibition
Low levels: impulsivity, instability, and over-reactivity
Impulsive suicide
Serotonin receptors
15 receptors
Serotonin pathway regions
Thalamus, basal ganglia, dorsal raphe nucleus, midbrain, cerebellum
Norepinephrine
CNS catecholamine
Function
Functions to mobilize the brain and body for action
Mediates arousal, alertness, focuses attention (e.g., panic)
Areas affected by norepinephrine (site+body)
Major site is the locus coeruleus (pons)
Affects other areas of the body via release of epinephrine (adrenaline) from the adrenal glands
Norepinephrine receptors
2 major receptors- 5 subtypes
Dopamine function + receptors
High levels associated with exploring, pleasure-seeking, outgoing behaviors
Plays a key role in positive affect and reward
Implicated in schizophrenia & depression
5 receptors
Norepinephrine
Pathways regions
Amygdala, hypothalamus, olfactory bulb, corpus callosum, thalamus, cerebral cortex
Dopamine pathways regions
Ventral tegmental area, substantia nigra, nucleus accumbens, basal ganglia, prefrontal cortex, mesostrial system, mesolimbocortical system,
Thalamus
Information hub
Transmits sensory/motor information to amygdala, cortex & hippocampus
Linked to hypothalamus
Fast versus slow paths
Hypothalamus
Links nervous system to endocrine system via the pituitary gland
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-cortical (HPA) Axis- central to stress response - Defensive behavior
Limbic system - Amygdala
function and connection
diseases associated
Emotion processing and Emotion memory consolidation
Novelty
Contributes to fear-based learning
Connection to hypothalamus = Rapid activation of HPA Axis in response to threat
Heightened activity in many disorders
Hippocampus - limbic system
function
receptors
diseases associated
Aids in consolidation of long-term memories
Integrate incoming sensory cues with stored information – detect novelty
Glucocorticoid receptors are sensitive to long-term stress which reduces neurogenesis
May be associated with PTSD & MDD
Basal Ganglia - limbic system
Complex structures
Caudate nucleus – controls motor activity -action selection and Behavior inhibition
Associated with OCD- Hyperactive CN- Orbital-frontal cortex (OFC) circuit.
Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)
Executive Functioning
Down-regulates the arousal system
Lower connectivity correlated with depression, anxiety & other disorders
Biological contributors to psychopathology
20,000 genes + alleles + Noncoding elements
~100 interacting biochemical systems (NTs)
Multiple receptor sites
Multiple brain regions & circuits
Contemporary Dynamic models - difference from first dynamic models
More emphasis on interpersonal factors than libidinal drives
Greater emphasis on therapist empathy
Shorter treatment duration
Movement toward research
Interpersonal Influences on psychopathology
A key role
Social-developmental experiences establish interpersonal expectations & patterns
Personality develops in part from interpersonal habitual relationships
Dynamic Interpersonal Therapy
Early experiences establish interpersonal patterns
Understanding those patterns (insight) facilitates changes
Therapeutic relationship is key to change
Self perpetuating Interpersonal cycle
Expectations > Actions > Reactions > Introjection
Cognitive-behavioral models: Integrates____ and studies ____
cognitive and behavioral processes
Studies how people make sense of their experiences (how attention, prediction and etc can influence pathologies)
Our cognition/behavior dictates how we make sense of their experiences through…
Attention (what we attent to) Prediction (expectations) Interpretation Recall (memory) each of these affects each other.
for cognitive behavioral psychologists, Psychological Disorders are Due to…
distortions in cognitive processing of environmental cues (biased processing)
critical life events are processed in negative schemas
for cognitive behavioral psychologists, People with psychological disorders process information in what way?
Selective attention (focus on bad cues) Biased judgments of events Selective recall (memory bias)
1970 - Cognitive-behavior therapies
Approach
Use behavior exercises to modify maladaptive cognitions
Emphasize Maladaptive cognitive processes and which are key to dysfunctional emotions and maladaptive behaviors
CBT treatment compared to other models
Instead of trying to change behavior for itself, they use behavioral strategies to correct dysfunctional cognitions
Emphasis on behavior in daily life, and not only with the therapist
Emphasis on the maintaining factor of the pathology, rather than the causative factors
2000 - Third wave of cognitive behavioral treatments
Approach
Focus on Overcoming experiential (/ emotional) avoidance
Emotion regulation through distancing of situation and acceptance of emotions
Encourage value-directed behavior
Value-directed behavior
wise-mind controls behavior, not emotion. CBT encourages patients to act with their values in mind, not their emotions.
CBT VS DYNAMIC
Focus on the Maintaining factors VS Causal ones
Goal: Modify maladaptive cognitions VS understand self-perpetuating patterns
Behavioral exercises outside and inside of session VS only inside
Cultural influences
Can happen…
directly via genetic diversity
By shaping attention to and interpretation of events.
- Through things like Language, World views, Conceptualizations of psychological disorders
Differences of prevalence of psychopathologies across cultures
Panic disorder and specific phobia higher in US than asia, latin america and africa
Social phobia very high in russia
“Not Otherwise Specified” diagnosis are more often used in other cultures
Cultural factors in Canada - diversity of mental health
Extremely low rates of psychological disorders in fundamentalist christians
‘Healthy Immigrant Effect’ and Under-usage of mainstream mental health services by minority groups
Canadian Indigenous Considerations
Depression, substance abuse, suicide, low self-esteem, PTSD symptoms, and violence are widespread in these populations. Due to: Institutional discrimination
Culture in Treatment
Cultural norms differ, which may influence treatment
- Similarity in values or cognitive match is critical
- Mental health professionals need to be trained in cultural and ethnic specifics
- Awareness that many minority groups feel disrespected
Psychological disorders arise from complex interactions between
Genetic expression, Physiology and neurochemistry
Life events and Behavior
Socio-cultural influences
