Contemporary Change

Question 1

Change processes

Answer 1

S-curve model
P.I.D.C
Wave model
Overlapping change features

Question 2

S-curve model

Answer 2

Words begins to be used by a few people (gradual)
More people use it (speeds up)
Becomes popular and codified
Change slows again
(Some people refuse to use it or too far away to use it so not 100%)

Question 3

P.I.D.C

Answer 3

P= Potential to change (need to change from internal pressures e.g. inventions)
I= Implementation (used in small groups)
D= Diffusion (change spreads through the population. Some people refuse change)
C= Codification (change is fully accepted and made official e.g. dictionaries)

Question 4

Baileys wave model

Answer 4

Social and geographical situations alter how quick pick up change
Closer we are to the point of change the more likely you are to pick it up
Like ripples, the further away you are the less likely you are to use it
Change gradually moves across the country socially and geographically and slowly dies out

Question 5

Aitchison Overlapping change features

Answer 5

Old and new forms coexist until old forms are lost

Two meanings of gay coexisted until the meaning of happy is now lost

Question 6

Change theories

Answer 6

Functional theory
Substratum theory
Sapir-whorf hypothesis
Random fluctuation theory

Question 7

Functional theory - Halliday

Answer 7

Language changes according to the needs & uses for social and functional reasons - e.g. technology
Words drop out of usage e.g. tuppence, cassette

Some words that drop out can be recycled if they’re needed for a new function

Question 8

Substratum theory - William labor

Answer 8

Lower levels in society change languages or words
E.g. Eastern European Jews (Yiddish) influenced NY accent door said with 2 syllables
Invasions of Britain included new words

Question 9

Sapir-whorf hypothesis

Answer 9

Language changes our thoughts - determinism of how we see the world (strong version)
Language influences our thoughts but doesn’t control it (weak version)
Language reflects our thoughts (reflectionism)

Question 10

Random fluctuation theory - Charles hockett

Answer 10

Random errors create changes - it’s unpredictable
Cultural transmission - conventions are learned by interacting with more experienced users
Some aspects are innate but mainly come from native speakers
Result of ever changing language contexts

Question 11

Language change attitudes

Answer 11

Prescriptivism
-damp spoon syndrome 
-crumbling castle 
-infectious disease 
Descriptivism

Question 12

Descriptivism

Answer 12

Describe how the language is used
Seeks to understand, explain and describe all forms of language and not judge them e.g. accepting slang
Accept change and think it’s evolutionary, inevitable, unstoppable

Question 13

Prescriptivism

Answer 13

Prescribe how the language should be used
Want to maintain a standard form
Linguistic gatekeeping - control what change is allowed
Try to restrict / prevent language change - detrimental

Question 14

Crumbling castle - jean aitchison

Answer 14

We need to preserve the language at a time when it was perfect
The language is decaying
Being grammatically incorrect and Inkhorn terms = decay

Argument against - no time when the language was perfect

Question 15

Infectious disease - jean aitchison

Answer 15

We catch change from people we interact with
Slang, Americanism

Argument against - changes are caught and people pick up changes because they want to

Question 16

Damp spoon syndrome - jean aitchison

Answer 16

Language changes because we become lazy and don’t use it properly
Contractions in writings e.g. it’s rather than it is

Argument against - the only lazy speech is drunken speech
Talking fast uses more muscles and glottal stops than pronouncing “t’s” properly

Question 17

Semantic change (10)

Change in meanings

Answer 17

Broadening (word widens it’s meaning e.g. Google)
Narrowing (word becomes more specific e.g. Apple)
Metaphor (takes on a metaphorical meaning e.g. think outside the box)
Metonym (represents a concept bigger than itself e.g. White House)
Strengthening (meaning gets intensified e.g. decimate)
Weakening (meaning gets less intense e.g. starving)
Amelioration (change from negative to positive meaning e.g. sick)
Derogation (change from positive to negative meaning e.g. gay)
Semantic shift (gains another meaning e.g. fit)
Euphemism (polite expressions for unpleasant things e.g. passed away)

Question 18

Lexical change (13)

How new words come into the language

Answer 18

Lexical attrition (words fallout e.g. thou)
Back formation (formed from existing words e.g. televise)
Acronym (first letter of every word = new word e.g. FOMO)
Initialism (first letter of every word pronounced individually e.g. GCSE)
Derivation (suffixes/prefixes added e.g. regift)
Blending (parts of words are joined together e.g. spork)
Compounding (putting 2 words together e.g. laptop)
Foreign borrowing (using words from other languages e.g. pizza)
Clipping (words are shortened and become the norm e.g. celeb)
Conversion (words shift from one category to another e.g. bottle)
Abbreviation (longer words are shortened for informality e.g. don’t)
Slang (informal language e.g. peak)
PC terms (less derogatory terms e.g. traveller)