Consumer Behaviour Post Midterm Flashcards
1
Q
What are the type of research by objectives, define
A
Descriptive: Size & characteristics of target market
Exploratory: gather insights formulate hypothesis
Causal: test hypothesis, response to marketing mix changes
2
Q
Types of Market Research bu source & method?
A
By Source: Primary (new data collection) & Secondary (previous data collection)
By method: Qualitative: Interviews, observations, focus groups etc. & Quantitative: Panel data (secondary) & Surveys (primary)
3
Q
Correlation
A
Two variables share some kind of relationship
4
Q
Causation
A
One Variable causes something to happen in another variable
5
Q
How can correlation be explained? Give examples
A
- One-Way Causality: X is the cause of Y, or reverse causality when Y is the cause of X **EX: Score on test & minutes spent studying
- Two-Way Causality: Both variables may be the cause of each other **EX: Watching too much TV causes back pain
- Confound: A third variable may be the cause of the correlation (Z impacts X & Y separately) ** EX Forest fires & Ice Cream Sales
- Spurious correlation: A mathematical relationship in which two events or variables have no causal connection **EX Nicholas Cage and Drownings
6
Q
Regression towards the mean
A
If a sample point of a random variable is extreme (nearly an outlier) a future point will be closer to the mean or average on further measurements
7
Q
What is a moderator
A
A second independent variable which changes the effect of your manipulated variable on the dependent variable (IE demographic, or psychographic variable segmentation)
8
Q
In order to establish causality how do we do it?
A
Control/manipulate one thing at a time, while holding other x variables constant.
Randomly assign participants to different levels of X.
9
Q
Balanced placebo design & example
A
2 variables are manipulated and 4 groups are created
Given placebo Y/N & Given expectations Y/N
10
Q
Between-subject study design
A
Different participants test each condition so that each is only exposed to a single condition
11
Q
Within-subject study design
A
The same participants tests all the conditions, presented in random order.
12
Q
What are the pros & cons of within subject design?
A
Pros: 1 Lower costs. 2) smaller sample size required, 3) “noise” control (individual differences across samples are less likely to influence results)
Cons: 1. Hypothesis guessing, 2.Being exposed to one level of the factor can influence participants perception of the other level (contamination
13
Q
Pros and cons of between subject designs
A
Pros: Avoids contamination, minimizes hypothesis guessing
Cons: Larger sample size required, more “noise” if randomization fails to eliminate individual differences across samples.
14
Q
What is prospect theory and how does it relate to experimental design?
A
Within-Subject design deflates the effect of prospect theory which suggests that people value their perceived gains more than their perceived losses. Participants are risk adverse for gains and risk seeking for losses.
15
Q
How does the effect of price on quality perception change depending on the experimental design?
A
Within subject design will inflate the effect, so the higher the price the higher the quality perception
16
Q
What are the three types of validity?
A
Internal: The findings are due to the independent variable
External: The findings can be generalized to another group or context
Ecological: The findings mimic what would happen in real life.
17
Q
Name 5 testable features and measurable outcomes from experimental ads
A
X: Animations, Target audience, placement on webpage, tag line
Y: CTR, likes/comments, time on site, sales/subscriptions, white paper downloads
18
Q
Social Emotional Contagion
A
People in more positivity-enhanced group posted more positive posts and the same goes the other way
19
Q
What are ethical considerations for research?
A
- Obtain informed consent:
- 1.A. Information: Were participants provided sufficient info?
- 1.B. Comprehension: Did the participants fully understand the study & have an opportunity to ask questions?
- 1.C. Voluntariness: Were participants free to decline or withdraw? - Protect vulnerable populations
20
Q
What kind of validity for each:
- We can randomly assign different marketing messages to online users
- We can have access to very diverse populations (e.g. 2.8 billion active users on Facebook!)
- We can measure «real» clicking or purchase behaviour
A
internal, external & ecological
21
Q
What is persuasion?
A
An active attempt to change/influence attitudes
- Attitudes: Cognition, Affect & Behaviour
22
Q
How to influence attitudes?
A
Sales techniques that rely on principles of commitment and consistency (foot in the door, low-ball, door in the face)
Normative Influence
Reciprocity
23
Q
The Elaboration Likelihood model
A
Persuasion depends on consumers level of product involvement
24
Q
Involvement
A
A person’s perceived relevance of the product based on their inherent needs, values and interest
25
Level of product involvement can depend on
Product type: car vs pen
Consumer type: Shampoo for women vs men
Situation: Suit for your wedding vs your distant cousin's wedding
26
What are the two pathways to influence attitudes
Central Route for high involvement
Peripheral route for low involvement
27
"My product has been proven more effective" how would you influence attitudes and name of route?
Central Route: Focus on important info, evidence, logic, rational arguments
- Utilitarian ads
- High cognitive effort
- Product comparisons, expert advice, consumer testimonials, trials
28
"People who buy my product are happy and attractive" how would you influence attitudes and name of route?
Focus on affect associations with positive or negative cues
- Hedonic ad
- Low cognition
- Celebrity endorsement, sexy ads
29
Explain how high and low involvement ads influence behaviour
H/I: Accumulation of information drives behaviour COG->BEHAV
L/I: emotional reaction drives behaviour
AFFECT->BEHAV
30
In terms of innovation adaption which consumers have the lowest vs highest involvement
Tech enthusiasts: Highest Involvement
Mass market: Low involvement
31
Source Credibility
Source's perceived competence: expertise, objectivity, or trustworthiness
32
Source attractiveness
source's perceived social value, physical appearance AND personality or social status (IE Trump)
33
Based on the ELM when is it better to have an attractive vs credible source?
Attractive - low involvement
| Credible - High involvement
34
Halo effect of beauty
Beautiful people are perceived as smarter, happier, more competent
35
When does the halo effect not work?
Ads where you want donations to children's hospitals
36
What are the 3 types of "credible" sources?
Celebrity, expert, "typical" consumer/testimonials
37
What can weaken consumers beliefs about a product in terms of sources?
When a source is perceived to be biased
38
Knowledge bias
Source's knowledge about a topic is not accurate
39
Reporting bias
Source has required knowledge but source's willingness to convey it is compromised
IE they are paid off
40
How is repetition a double edge sword?
Two- Factor Theory
| "mere exposure" VS adaptation
41
Two- Factor Theory
Two opposite forces operate at the same time (learning vs tedium)
42
Comparative ads pros & cons
Pros: Can be more effective than non- comparative ads in terms of attention, elaboration, brand attitude, purchase intentions, and purchase behaviours
Cons: Source degradation (rarely found in Asia), Primes competitor
43
What is the relationship between the effectiveness of comparative advertising and market position (IE market leader & new entrants)
New entrants and small actors YES market leaders NOPE
44
What are one & two sided messages? Examples
One-Sided: Only supportive information CNN the most trusted name in news
Two-Sided: Positive and negative information IE Buckley's "tastes awful but it works" & The ugly carrot soup, Avis we're number 2 so we try harder.
45
How does two-sided messages work?
It works by pointing out the source of the bias which helps it disappear
46
How does ELM use emotions?
Ads with sex appeals: get attention, can lead to more elaboration and evaluative bias, varies between gender
Humour appeals: gets attention, can mitigate counter arguing, should be brand consistent
Fear appeals: gets attention, but self-defence mechanisms (distraction and counter arguing) may decrease evaluative effects.
- Better with moderate amount of fear & if info on what to do next
47
What is the rational perspective? It is also ______ perspective?
Consumers integrate as much information as possible, make informed decisions, and manage to maximize their utility.
It's normative perspective (how you should behave)
48
Behavioural perspective? It is also ______ perspective?
All sorts of factors prevent people from maximizing their utility or behaving like rational agents ( e.g. heuristics and biases, cognitive limitations, framing effects, environmental/social influences, emotions, etc.).
It's a descriptive perspective (how you actually behave)
49
What is the sunk cost fallacy? What are some examples?
Having paid for or invested in something makes us reluctant to waste it.
Examples: You watch Twilight 3 because you've already watched 1 & 2
50
Why is the sunk cost fallacy irrational?
Because it's already occurred and we cannot recover our costs either way, it shouldn't impact our future choices
51
What is prospect theory?
We tend to value perceived gains more than losses
52
Reference dependence
We evaluate gains and losses relative to some reference point
53
Loss aversion
Losses count twice as much as gains
54
________ for gains and __________ for losses
Risk aversion & risk seeking
55
What are the marketing implications for Prospect Theory
Consumers more sensitive to price increases than price decreases
Consumers hate losing something they have (aka "endowment effect")
- Free trial period, Zero risk returns, Test drive [This is due to the change in reference point]
56
What are the steps in the individual decision process? 5
1. Problem recognition
2. Information Search
3. Evaluation of alternatives
4. Product choice
5. Consumption & Learning
57
What are the 2 types of problem recognition? Define
1. Opportunity recognition: Due to an increase in ideal state i.e. My friend's TV screen is better than mine
2. Need recognition: Due to a decrease in actual state i.e. I'm running out of gas
58
Problem Recognition
Problem recognition occurs whenever the consumer perceives a difference between his/her current state and some desired or ideal
59
Information search
Information search is the process in which consumers scan their memory (=internal search) or their environment (=external search) for appropriate information to make a reasonable decision
60
The amount of information search and the type of information search (______________) varies with __________________
The amount of information search and the type of information search (internal or external, deliberate or accidental) varies with product involvement
61
What are the two types of information seekers and define them
1. Maximizer: Look for the solution that delivers the best possible answer to their problem
2. Satisfier: You just look for a "good enough" solution.
62
Who's more likely to regret their choices in the information search
Maximizers
63
What is heuristics? What are some examples?
Mental shortcuts to more extensive information processing. They simplify decision-making but are not necessarily correct.
EX: price-quality, brand-quality, country of origin
64
How does marketing rely on heuristics? Examples
Embedding the country of origins into the label, (ie VW) OR brands with French or German sounding names (Laneige), OR Apple "designed in California"
65
How do we evaluate alternatives?
1. Evoked set: Alternatives actively considered
2. Inert Set: Alternatives that do not come to mind at all
3. Inept Set: Alternatives that you are aware of but would not consider buying
66
The Mother Energy Brand Case Study Falls under which type of evaluation of alternatives
They are in the inept set, which means that there is an awareness, but there is no consideration of buying the product
67
What were the tactics Mother used to move their brand?
- Two-Sided Message
- Humour
- Appeal to Youth culture
68
What is evaluation criteria?
The dimensions used to judge the merits of competing options
69
Asymmetric Dominance Effect
AKA Decoy effect: Adding in a third option (the decoy) that is dominated by one (but not the both) of the original two alternatives, increases that attractiveness of the dominating option
IE The camera test in class (10X vs 15X zoom)
70
What are the marketing implications of asymmetric dominance? EX
It's helpful to add in an inferior option to your product line, even if no one buys them to make the others seem more attractive.
EI: Economist subscription: A) web, web & print B) web, print OR web & print
71
What is choice overload? EX
It's when there are too many choices given and people are less likely to buy.
EX: jams, people are more likely to buy if there is like 6 choices VS 24 choices
72
Given the information about choice overload how can we use technology in marketing?
People prefer an algorithm to make choices over making the choices for ourselves
73
What is a reference group?
An individual or group with particular relevance for an individual's evaluations aspirations or behaviours
74
What are brand communities?
Set of consumers who share a set of social relationships based on usage of or interest in a product/brand
75
What value do brand communities give?
1. Loyalty - maintain cognitive consistency
2. Spread positive WOM
3. Facilitate brand extension strategies & brand ecosystems
76
What is propinquity?
physical & psychological proximity - like-attracts-like
77
Why do we like in-groups?
- like-attracts-like
- In-Groups are part of people's extended self (see class on identity)
- Need to belong/ Need for affiliation
78
How do we increase group cohesiveness?
1. Smaller group
2. Membership restriction/ scarcity
3. Symbols
4. Defined limits between in group and out groups
79
What is Group Cohesiveness
Degree to which members of a group are attracted to each other and value their group membership
80
What are the 3 types of reference groups? & examples
1. Membership Reference Group (In-group) - Propinquity, identification, affiliation EX: Weight Watchers
2. Aspirational Reference Groups (Out-Groups) - Idealized/aspirational figures EX Influencers
3. Dissociative Reference Group (Out-Group) EX Apple consumers Samsung
81
Explain the Reference group experiment with Canadian Identity & pens from usa & belgium
high canadian identity prefer Belgian pen significantly more
82
Conformity
The tendency for people to bring their behaviour in line with group norms
the process whereby people change their beliefs, attitudes, actions, or perceptions to more closely match those held by groups to which they belong or want to belong or by groups whose approval they desire.
83
Types of norms
Injunctive: what people should do
Descriptive: what people actually do
Class on attitudes
84
Why do people conform with groups?
- Informational conformity: the majority must be "right"
- Normative conformity, driven by...
- The need to be liked
- The willingness to avoid conflict
- The fear of being rejected
85
what is anti-conformity?
Defiance of the group - Need for uniqueness
86
Reactance
Unpleasant feeling when something feels forced or imposed by an authority or by a social norm
often leads to people to do the exact opposite
87
What leads to teenagers consuming drugs & alcohol?
Conformity with other teenagers (Peer Pressure & Normative influence)
Reactance against parental authority (anti-conformity with dissociative group)
88
Normative Influence
The process by which a reference group helps set & enforces fundamental standards of conduct
89
What would make an effective prevention campaign at school?
Norm information :
- Confronting expectations about prevalence of substance consumption & reality (less prevalent than expected)
- Information about social groups where substance consumption is most prevalent (usually dissociative groups)
90
Why is teaching kids about peer pressure less effective
- Reactance to authority (anti-conformity with dissociative group)
- Injunctive norms, what you should be doing
91
Why do restaurants charge a fixed gratuity for large groups?
Social Loafing: Individuals do not devote as much effort to a task when their contribution is part of a larger group effort
Diffusion of responsibility: Individuals feel less accountable for the outcome of a decision when many people are involved
92
Bystander effect
Individuals won’t help a person in need when other people are present. It’s a form of diffusion of responsibility.
93
What are the two types of influence networks
1. Two-Step Flow Model: Opinion leaders have access to information, and interpret it based on their own opinion. They then begin to infiltrate these opinions through the general public who become "opinion followers"
2. Influence Network: Influence is driven by the interaction among those who are easily influenced; they communicate the information to one another and they also participate in a two-way dialogue with the opinion leader
94
What kinds of power do opinion leaders have?
"Legitimate power" (social agreement) Politician
| "Expert power" (specific knowledge or skill) Academic journalist
95
Where does power come from in social networks?
"weak ties" with a large group and can mediate communications and exchange
96
What is the paradox of weak ties
The strength of weak ties, it's the people with whom we are the least connected who offer us the most opportunities.
97
word of mouth communication
Product information transmitted by individuals to individuals. Can be good or bad. Is VERY powerful (much more than advertising)
98
Buzz marketing
activities undertaken by marketers to encourage consumers to spread WOM
99
Viral Marketing
A strategy of getting customers to sell or promote a product on behalf of the company that creates it
100
What are tactics to create buzz? 4
1. Focus more on people and less on product: Know your target's psychographics! Risk=People don't know your product ( i.e. Ice Bucket Challenge)
2. Influencer Marketing: Identify aspirational groups (i.e. Instagram celebrities) Risk= reporting bias
3. Scarcity Principle (limited edition)
4. Inform about the success of the establish normative influence (ei number of likes etc.)
101
Gini Coefficient
Is a number between 0 and 100, where 0 corresponds with perfect equality (where everyone has the same income) and 100 corresponds with perfect inequality (where one person has all the income and everyone else has zero income)
102
What explains Gini disparities?
- Tax redistribution
- Minimum wages
- Corporate culture (i.e. high salaries for top executives)
103
Consumer Confidence
Consumers' beliefs about what the future holds
Measurement: "do you think you'll be better or worse off a year from now?"
104
What does consumer confidence have to do with economic policy?
Having a high consumer conficende is a major goal for economic policy because it predicts the saving rates (-), consuption rates (+), and ultimately investment & employment rate (+)
105
Why won't more money bring more happiness? 4
- The hedonic treadmill: People "adapt" to positive/negative events
- Need satisfaction: Needs that are "expensive" to satisfy do not necessarily bring happiness (i.e. need for status)
- Material goods bring less happiness than does experiences
- "Maximizers" Make more money but will never be satisfied
106
Explain the neural predictors of purchases
If consumers like a product anticipation of a reward and positive arousal - nucleus accumbens
If price is excessive it's associated with pain, distress and negative arousal - Insula
Purchase is predicted when anticipation of reward is high and pain of paying is low
107
What is the most painful way of paying and why?
Paying by cash hurts more
B/C
1. Saliency (noticeable), seeing money going away
2. Timing, Seeing the money go away at the same time as the act of consumption
108
Why was Amazon Dash discontinued?
1. Consumers like to have the opportunity to try and experiment with new products
2. Consumers like to monitor their purchases
3. Growing success of Alexa
109
Reliance on pain could lead to what type of mistakes in terms of buying behaviour?
Psychographics?
- Spendthrifts: Do not experience enough pain of paying
- Tightwads: experience too much pain of paying
-Tightwads save more, have less debt than spendthrifts at each income level. Men, older & educated
110
Who are more likely to be tightwads?
Men, older & educated
111
What is social class? What is it determined by?
Overall rank of people in a society
Occupational prestige, Income, Education, Country of origin
112
What is social mobility?
The passage of individuals from one social class to another
113
What are the ways social mobility can be impacted by marriage?
1. Homogamy = tendency to marry people within the same social class
2. Hypergamy = marrying up
3. Hypogamy = marrying down
114
Subjective social class
The class with which a consumer identifies rather than the one to which he or she actually belongs
115
Conspicuous Consumption
Buying expensive items to display wealth, income and social class (status signalling)
116
brand prominence
not a function of wealth, but a function of need for status
117
How does conspicuous and inconspicuous consumption differ?
CONSPICUOUS:
Loud signals (big logos)
Target Audience: consumers with a high need for status and want to display their wealth
Not necessarily very wealthy or became wealthy recently
INCONSPICUOUS:
Quiet signals (small logo)
Target Audience: customers with lower need for status, wish to display their wealth to other wealthy people
118
FLC
Family Life Cycle: as we age our, preferences/needs fro products and activities tend to change
119
FLC transitions
when our life changes (marriage, birth, divorce) we are more likely to change our buying habits
120
With ________ shopping trends can identify and predict life changes
big data
121
What are the 2 types of cross-cultural marketing?
Standardized or adptation
122
What are the pros 3 & cons 3 of the two different types of cross-cultural marketing
STANDARDIZATION:
PROS : 1. Economies of scale 2. Faster set up time 3. Single Global Image 4. Excellent monitoring of communication
CONS: 1. Possible loss of advertising effectiveness 2. Little reactivity and little flexibility. 3. Can create negative reactions from neglecting local needs
ADAPTATION:
PROS: 1. Respect local specifications and expectations 2. Excellent local image. 3. Customers keep their landmark and feel noticed
CONS: 1. Higher costs 2. Time consuming and poor speed of execution 3. Difficult to know what consumers really want
123
How do cultures differ?
Tastes
Norms - Customs, Mores, Conventions
Values
124
Tates
What's considered beautiful, palatable, etc.
125
Norms
Rules dictating what's right/wrong, acceptable/unacceptable
126
Customs
Basic behaviours i.e. What time we eat dinner at
127
Mores
customs with moral overtones (taboos) i.e. what are we allowed to eat
128
Conventions
the "correct" conduct of everyday life i.e. what utensils are used to eat
129
Values
Beliefs that something is preferable to its opposite
130
Across cultures in food what are the strongest differences
Sweetness, saltiness, bitterness and spiciness
131
What is considered "healthy" in Western vs Asian?
Western: based on specific nutrients - carbs, sodium etc.
Asian: balanced hot with cold i.e. deep fried chips and cucumber
132
Explain Hofstede Six Value Dimensions
1. Individuality vs collectivism: The degree to which a culture values the welfare of the individual rather than the group
2. Masculinity vs Femininity: The extent to which a culture stresses assertiveness, success and competition over warm personal relationships and caring.
3. Power Distance: The degree to which a society's members are equal in terms of status
4. Uncertainty avoidance: Aversion towards uncertain, ambiguous, or risky situations
5. Indulgence VS restraint: Society permits gratification, fun and enjoyment
6. Long-term orientation: Long-Term oriented societies attach more importance to the future (perseverance & thrift) rather than present (Short-term gratification) or past (traditions)
133
How do anti- smoking ads differ across the US and Japan and why?
USA: Be smart don't start, Tabaco use can make you impotent. All focus on the individual
Japan: A cigarette is carried at the height of a child's face - Collectivism. Focus on the impact of the individual on the group
134
How does focused and peripheral attention differ across cultures?
Westerners have a focused attention
| East Asians allocate their attention more broadly
135
What is back translation
when you translate english->French then back to English again
136
Symbol
An object representing something else, often immaterial
137
Ritual
Set of symbolic behaviours that occur in a fixed sequence and that tend to be repeated periodically
138
Ritual Artifact
Item used in the performance of rituals
139
How can rituals be used by marketers?
Positioning your product as a ritual artifact can be a jackpot:
Diamonds for engagement rings
KFC in Japan
140
Explain gift giving and it's cross cultural differences
Gift-Giving: can be viewed as a ritual or social convention. Sometimes it's an economic exchange = transfer of value, with reciprocity norm (equal value). The reciprocity norm can trigger resentment. Sometimes it's just a "symbolic exchange" where there is no expectation of reciprocity.
In Japan gift-giving is more symbolic than an economic exchange
141
types of innovation & Examples
1. Continuous Innovation: Modifications of an existing product
2. Dynamically Continuous Innovation: More pronounced change, requires behaviour change (e.g. introduction of virtual keyboard ono the first iPhone 2007)
3. Discontinuous Innovation: Major, new product category (e.g. first commercialized cell phone)
142
How did the diffusion of innovation work in the past?
buy ads -> sell products -> make profits and repeat
| Focused on the mass market ( early & late majority)
143
What is the diffusion of innovation? Curve?
Process whereby a new product, service or idea spreads through the population
Innovators, Early adaptors, Early majority, late majority & laggers
144
How does the product life-cycle interact with the diffusion of innovation?
The Introduction: Innovators & Early Adaptors
--THE CHASM--
The Acceptance Stage: Early majority
Regression Stage: Late majority and Laggards
145
What are the psychological characteristics of innovators and early adaptors? Explain & give examples
1. "category specific" very knowledgeable, and high involvement.
- Educate with utilitarian/functional communication
- Increase involvement with crowd sourcing/financing Beta testing
2. High need for uniqueness
- Scarcity, limited supply, invite only, wait list, VIP subscription
3. Price
- Price skimming = Set high then reduce (iPhone & Playstation)
- Penetration pricing = Set low then hight (Netflix)
146
What is the psychology of the majority
1. Low-involvement consumers
- Entertain them with fun/emotional communication
2. High need for conformity: They need "social proof" i.e. evidence that the product has already been adopted and validated by other consumers
- Celebrity endorsement, product placement
- Endorsement or advocacy by friends (early adaptors) on social media
3. Price?
- In a mature market: Different prices for different consumer segments (vertical differentiation, price discrimination)
147
Why do products not cross the "chasm"?
Need to have:
1. Relative Advantage: Must give advantages that other products don't have
2. Compatibility: Must fit consumer's lifestyle
3. Observability: Ones that are observable spread faster
4. Trial-ability: Reduce risk by letting consumers try it
5. Complexity: Lower the better
148
How has the S-Curve changed in recent days?
Innovations spread sooner now than they used to, more vertical
149
The diffusion of fashion curve
Introduction: Fad
Growth: Fashion
Maturity & Decline: Basic Products (classic)
150
Fad
Short-lived fashion, doesn't get adopted by the majority
EX: hammer pants
151
Classic
Fashion with long acceptance cycle
EX: White Sneakers
152
Trickle Down Effect
```
High-fashion (high-status consumers)
Adaption by early adopters with high need for status (middle-status consumers)
Mass market (Lower-Status consumers)
```
153
Trickle Up Effect
Minority Culture/ Subculture by Marginalized Groups -> High Fashion
Minority Culture/ Subculture by Marginalized Groups -> High Fashion-> Mass Market
154
Trickle Round Effect
High-status consumers adopt low-status signals to distinguish themselves from middle-status consumers (a form of inconspicuous consumption)
155
What are examples of upscale, downscale, mix & match
prada wedges, crocs, croc Balenciaga shoes
156
What are the social and environmental costs of overeating
1. Social Cost: Impact on health public spending
2. Environmental Costs: Agriculture uses 38% of world's land & 90% of fresh water
- Food production contributes to 7% of GHG
- Meat is the main culprit, dairy, chocolate & palm oil
157
What are limitation of calorie labeling
1. Consumers don't pay attention
| 2. Calorie labels are hard to understand
158
What are some solutions to the limitations of calorie labels?
```
Make the labels clearer & more visible and easy to understand
Use colour (high, med, low)
```
159
Most "healthier" chocolate bars aren't huge improvements. Why?
1. Supply: Sugar is cheap and abundant
Hard to find tasty substitutes for sugar & fat
2. Demand: Taste remains the first criterion of food choices
160
What are solutions to overeating?
1. Calorie Labels
2. Food reformulation
3. Reducing portion sizes
4. Pleasure, not size not health
161
What does the expectancy effect have to do with health
```
Unhealthy = Tasty
Healthy = Not tasty
```
162
Horns & halo effect in food
Horns effect is when "bad" food like coca-cola is perceived to have higher calories
Halo effect when "good" foods are perceived to be healthier/lower calories than others
163
what are some of the consequences of "healthy" candy vs regular candy
Think that they are consuming less calories than they actually are. If the food is healthy I can eat more
164
Why is it difficult to increase the nutritional quality of food?
1. Hard to keep it tasting good
2. Unhealthy food taste beliefs Vs healthy tastes not good
3. Halo effect can lead to over eating
165
Why are food portions sizes so large?
Food industry has a low variable cost and high fixed costs
166
Consumers tend to ____________ large portion sizes
Underestimate
167
How large is a double big gulp?
2L
168
What are some solutions to changing the perception of "normality" of portion sizes?
Try and impact the evaluative criteria
1. Add in smaller sizes
2. Re-Name the size labels where smallest is called regular
3. Elongate the packages, so that they think that there is more in them
4. Create partition cues, which helps reduce mindless eating & creates a norm of appropriate serving size
5. Resealable packs
169
How does sensory pleasure differ from hunger satiation
1. People normally choose larger portions b/c they want to satiate their hunger & perceived value for money
2. Sensory pleasure: peaks at first few bites then declines, last bite determined overall pleasure evaluations
170
How can we change the focus of quantity-focused business model to quality-focused
Focus on sensory pleasure increases the acceptability of smaller portion sizes
Align health, pleasure & business
