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Cardiovascular > Constituents of the blood > Flashcards

Constituents of the blood Flashcards

1
Q

Erythrocytes

A

Red blood cells

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2
Q

Erythrocyte function

A

Gas transport - carry oxygen from lungs to tissue + carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs, where it’s breathed out

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3
Q

Erythrocyte histological appearance

A

Rounded, bright pink-stained cells. Paler in centre than periphery. Oxygen carrying haemoglobin binds to acidic eosin dye –> acidophilia (bright pink colour)

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4
Q

Acidophilia

A

Bright pink colour

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5
Q

Erythrocyte diameter and shape

A

6.5-8.5 micrometres.

Biconcave disk.

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6
Q

Erythrocyte form/function

A

Biconcave disk gives high SA:volume ratio - rapid diffusion for gas exchange

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7
Q

Structure of erythrocytes

A

No nucleus - lost in formation.
Cell membrane surrounding electron-dense cytoplasm (containing haemoglobin)
No organelles - lost in differentiation

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8
Q

Erythrocyte cytoskeleton

A

Filamentous skeleton of protein spectrin anchored to cell by band 3 protein, ankyrin, band 4 protein.
Short actin piecies (15 actin monomers long) linking spectrin to band 4 proteins.
Maintains shape.

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9
Q

Metabolic activity of erythrocytes

A

Derive energy from anaerobic metabolism of glucose, and from ATP generation by hexose monophosphate shunt.

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10
Q

Life-span of erythrocytes

A

100-120 days in circulation

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11
Q

Production of erythrocytes (site)

A

Red bone marrow

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12
Q

Reticulocyte

A

Young erythrocytes in bone marrow still containing ribosomes - produces web-like reticular appearance. Lose ribosomes ~ 1 day in circulation.

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13
Q

Factors in erythrocyte ageing

A

Diminishing efficiency of ion pumping

Less deformable –> can’t negotiate microcirculation

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14
Q

Disposable of erythrocytes

A

Spleen (most active), liver and bone marrow. Aged and defective

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15
Q

Breakdown product of erythrocyte breakdown

A

Bilirubin - returned to circulation. Gives plasma its yellow colour.

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16
Q

Iron

A

Element to which oxygen binds to on haemoglobin molecule

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17
Q

Iron loss

A

Urine, faeces, sweat, cells, menstrual blood

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18
Q

Iron replenishment

A

Ingestion of iron-containing foods

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19
Q

Iron deficiency

A

Disruption of body’s iron balance - inadequate haemoglobin production
Anemia

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20
Q

Hemochromatosis

A

Excess of iron in body. Abnormal iron deposits + damage in organs: liver, heart, pituitary gland, pancreas, joints

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21
Q

Homeostasis of iron

A

Intestinal epithelium. Active absorption of iron from food. Fraction absorbed is increased or decreased in negative feedback.

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22
Q

Storage of iron

A

Bound up in protein ferritin, in liver.

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23
Q

Proportions of iron in body

A

50% in haemoglobin, 25% in heme-containing proteins (cytochromes), 25% in liver

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24
Q

Recycling of iron

A

Iron from erythrocyte breakdown is transferred to plasma, then bound to iron-transport plasma protein: transferrin.

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25
Q

Transferrin

A

iron-transfer plasma protein, delivers almost all of iron to bone marrow.

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26
Q

Folic acid - where it’s found and its function in synthesis

A

Vitamin in leafy plants, yeast, the liver.

Synthesis of thymine –> needed for DNA formation and cell division.

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27
Q

Consequences of lack of folic acid

A

Impairment of cell division

Extreme effects on rapidly proliferating cells (e.g erythrocytes) - fewer erythrocytes produced.

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28
Q

What else is required for production of normal erythrocyte numbers?

A

Vitamin B12.

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29
Q

Vitamin B12 - what is it, where is it found

A

cobalt-containing molecule (cobalamin).

found in animal products

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30
Q

Vitamin B12 and erythrocytes

A

Required for action of folic acid.

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31
Q

Absorption of vitamin B12

A

from GI tract by intrinsic factor (protein secreted by stomach)

32
Q

Intrinsic factor

A

Protein secreted by stomach. Absorbs vitamin B12

33
Q

Lack of intrinsic factor consequences

A

vitamin B12 deficiency, erythrocyte deficiency: pernicious anemia

34
Q

Erythropoiesis

A

Normal erythrocyte production

35
Q

Direct control of erythropoiesis

A

Erythropoietin

36
Q

Erythropoietin secretion

A

Small group of hormone-secreting connective tissue cells in the kidney

37
Q

Erythropoietin function

A

Acts on bone marrow to stimulate proliferation of erythrocyte progenitor cells and differentiation into mature erythrocytes

38
Q

Flow chart of erythropoietin production

A

Decreased O2 delivery to kidneys
Increased erythropoietin secretion by kidneys
Increased plasma erythropoietin
Increased production of erythrocytes by bone marrow
Increased blood Hb concentration
Increased blood O2 carrying capacity
Restoration of O2 delivery

39
Q

Which other hormone stimulates production of erythropoietin?

A

Testosterone - higher hematocrit in males.

40
Q

Types of leukocytes and their proportions

A 
Neutrophils 40-75%
Eosinophils 5%
Basophils 0.5% 
Lymphocytes 20-50%
Monocytes 1-5%
41
Q

Increased proportions

A

If increased activity is required, number and proportion rises accordingly

42
Q

Granulocytes/Myeloid cells

A

Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils have prominent granules in their cytoplasm.
Originate from bone marrow.

43
Q

Polymorphonuclear leukocytes/Polymorphs

A

Neutrophils - multilobed nucleus

44
Q

Lymphocytes and monocytes classification as leukocytes

A

Both are constituents of blood and originate from bone marrow.

45
Q

Lymphocytes and monocytes location

A

Lymph nodes and spleen

46
Q

Lymphocytes and monocytes transformation

A

Monocytes -> macrophages
Basophils -> mast cells

In tissues

47
Q

Neutrophils circulation

A

circulate in resting state, w/ activation they leave blood and enter tissues

48
Q

Neutrophils functions

A

Phagocytic. Ingest and destroy invading microorganisms in tissues. Early stages of acute inflammatory response to tissue injury. Major constituent of pus.

49
Q

Neutrophil nucleus

A

2-5 lobes, joined by fine strands of nuclear material.

Lobulation develops w/ cell maturity.

50
Q

Diameter of neutrophils

A

12-14 micrometres

51
Q

Chromatin in neutrophils

A

Highly condensed - low degree of protein synthesis

52
Q

Neutrophils in females

A

In 3% of females, nuclei exhibit small, condensed nuclear appendage - quiescent X chromosome (Barr body)

53
Q

Granules

A

Membrane-bound vesicles

54
Q

Primary granules in neutrophils - contents, appearance, formation

A

Similar to lysosomes
First to appear in formation, number falls in development
Large and electron dense
Contain acid hydrolases, antibacterial and digestive substances (myeloperoxidase)

55
Q

Detection of myeloperoxidase

A

Peroxidase stain

56
Q

Secondary granules in neutrophils - diameter, contents

A

Specific to neutrophils
0.2-0.8 micrometres
2x numerous as primary
substances involved in mobilisation of inflammatory mediators and complement activation

57
Q

Tertiary granules contents and function

A

Contain enzymes secreted into extracellular environment

Insert glycoproteins into cell membrane - promotes cellular adhesion, phagocytic process

58
Q

How do leukocytes leave vessels?

A

Stick to endothelium lining capillaries and pass into tissues by traversing vessel wall

59
Q

Mediation of adhesion of leukocytes to endothelium

A

Mediated by complementary cell adhesion molecules expressed on leukocyte and endothelium surface

60
Q

Movement of leukocytes during disease states

A

Cytokines activate leukocytes and endothelium - high expression of adhesion molecules, firm sticking. Further cell signals make leukocytes motile - migrate into tissues.

61
Q

Contents of neutrophils

A

Few organelles apart from granules. Few RER and free ribosomes, remnants of Golgi complex is involved in granule packaging. Few mitochondria (50% energy needs). Antioxidants to destroy toxic peroxides

62
Q

Activated neutrophils

A

Need to be able to function in devascularised tissue (low O2 and glucose)
Abundant glycogen for anaerobic metabolism (glycolitic pathway or hexose monophosphate shunt)

63
Q

Hexose monophosphate shunt

A

Mainly to generate microbicidal oxidants, and anaerobic metabolism

64
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Cells ingest extracellular particles for destruction

65
Q

Chemotaxins

A

Chemicals - degradation products of complement, products leaking from dead cells, bacterially derived polysaccharides in extracellular space

66
Q

Neutrophil motility

A

Derived from assembly and disassembly of cellular actin filaments

67
Q

Death of neutrophils

A

Die soon after phagocytosis, as the high energy dependent process uses up glycogen reserve. Lysosomal enzymes are released into extracellular space -> liquefaction of adjacent tissue

68
Q

Pus

A

Collection of dead neutrophils, tissue fluid and abnormal material

69
Q

Neutrophil membrane receptors

A

for Fc portion of antibodies, complement factors bound to foreign particles, bacterial polysaccharides

70
Q

1st step of phagocytosis

A

Neutrophil binds to abnormal particle via receptors. Pushes out pseudopodia to surround particle - driven by assembly and disassembly of actin filaments

71
Q

2nd step of phagocytosis

A

Pseudopodia fuse to completely enclose abnormal particle - forms an endocytotic vesicle. Special proteins allow final sealing of membrane.

72
Q

Phagosome

A

Enclosed particle in endocytotic vesicle

73
Q

3rd step of phagocytosis

A

Phagosome fuses w/ primary granules - discharge lysosomal enzymes. Bacterium - killing is enhanced by hydrogen peroxide and superoxide is generated by reduction of oxygen by respiratory burst oxidase (RBO)

74
Q

RBO

A

respiratory burst oxidase - membrane enzyme which generates superoxide when reducing oxygen. During killing of a bacterium by hydrogen peroxide

75
Q

Foreign particle destruction

A

Formation of residual body containing degraded material

Cardiovascular (11 decks)

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