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Memory & Language > Consolidation & Forgetting > Flashcards

Consolidation & Forgetting Flashcards

1
Q

Consolidation definition

A

Integrating new information with old information

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2
Q

Forgetting definition

A

Information loss

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3
Q

When we forget something, is the information lost?

A
  1. Info may be lost - memory trace itself is poor/deteriorating - PASSIVE forgetting - problem with storage
  2. Info may be inaccessible - lack of retrieval cues / interference - problem with retrieval - PASSIVE forgetting
  3. Info may be inhibited - ACTIVE forgetting

Forgetting is adaptive

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4
Q

Brain damage resulting in inability to form new memories

A

Damage to the hippocampus and other MTL structures

e.g. case study of HM

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5
Q

What is the hippocampus critical for?

A

Critical for the acquisition of declarative memories (opposite to procedural) e.g. episodic (first day of school) or semantic (general knowledge facts; capital of France)

Amnesics - can’t form new memories
Normal controls - when activation in MTL structures on brain scan - that can predict whether info will be later recalled

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6
Q

For long term memory; consolidation process

A

Hippocampus –> neocortex

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7
Q

First step of consolidation

A

Hippocampus binds information together to form a higher level representation

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8
Q

Second step of consolidation

A

This is stored and distributed across networks in other cortical areas and INTEGRATES with old information

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9
Q

What is knowledge?

A

Structured/organised information

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10
Q

What is the Complementary Learning Systems model?

A

Memories are first stored via synaptic changes in the hippocampal system - these changes support reinstatement of recent memories in the neocortex

Neocortical synapses change a little on each reinstatement, and that remote memory is based on accumulated neocortical changes. Models that learn via changes to connections help explain this organization.

These models discover the structure in ensembles of items if learning of each item is gradual and interleaved with learning about other items.

This suggests that the neocortex learns SLOWLY to discover the structure in ensembles of experiences.

The hippocampal system permits RAPID learning of new items without disrupting this structure, and reinstatement of new memories interleaves them with others to integrate them into structured neocortical memory systems.

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11
Q

Damage to the hippocampus

A

Damage to the hippocampal system disrupts recent memory but leaves remote memory intact

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12
Q

Catastrophic interference

A

New information can interfere and replace old information

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13
Q

First step to complementary systems model

A

Fast, initial episodic learning mediated by the hippocampus (vulnerable memories)

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14
Q

Second step to complementary systems model

A

Slow, long-term storage in NEOCORTEX involving integration with existing knowledge (integration reduces interference)
Less vulnerable memories, as they are being embedded

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15
Q

Explanation of consolidation process

A

Slow neocortical learning process that “stabilises” or “fixes” memories in LTM across hours/days

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16
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

Retrograde amnesia is a form of amnesia where someone is unable to recall events that occurred before the development of the amnesia, even though they may be able to encode and memorise new things that occur after the onset - can’t recall recently formed memories as well due to disrupted consolidation process

Retrograde amnesia usually follows damage to areas of the brain other than the hippocampus (the part of the brain involved in encoding new memories), because already existing long-term memories are stored in the neurons and synapses of various different brain regions

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17
Q

Why does consolidation happen in sleep?

A

Memories are transferred/laid down in neocortex in sleep due to minimal external input at that time

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18
Q

Sleep and learning

A

Particularly for procedural (non-declarative)

also affects declarative (episodic and semantic)

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19
Q

Early sleep - important for?

A

Early sleep is slow wave sleep

Important for consolidation of HIPPOCAMPUS-dependent declarative learning

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20
Q

Late/REM sleep - important for?

A

Procedural learning

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21
Q

Walker et al (2002) findings

A

Procedural learning - compare performance after x amount of hours being asleep and x hours being awake = - Overnight improvement

  • Further improvement over subsequent nights
  • Sleep deprivation reduces improvement

Declarative memory
Sleep may “PROTECT” memories from interference
% recall is a lot higher after sleep as opposed to awake condition - study two sets of word pairs (Paired-associate learning)

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22
Q

Clay et al (2007)

A

Learning of new words tested by assessing the presence of semantic interference with new words

Slower naming with related distractors but only after 1 week

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23
Q

Dumay & Gaskell (2007)

A

Learning of new words

AM group: study 8am - test 8pm - test 8am
PM group: study 8pm - test 8am - test 8pm
After sleep = better declarative memory

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24
Q

Forgetting curves (Ebbinghaus)

A

Ebbinghaus examined own ability to learn lists of nonsense syllables - found that forgetting function may be LOGARITHMIC
Forgetting is generally faster shortly after learning and then slower decline
graph = retention (%) vs elapsed time (days)

25
Q

Savings method

A

Reduction in number of trials necessary to relearn materials over different retention intervals

26
Q

Bahrick (1984) - logarithmic forgetting curves

A 
Consistent with Ebbinghaus
Retention of Spanish vocab over 50 years
Rapid loss in first 3 years 
Relatively stable until 35 years 
35-50 years further decline

Tested % Spanish original vocab retained

27
Q

Permastore

A

Memories that appear to be very resistant to loss

28
Q

Meeter, Murre & Janssen (2005) - logarithmic forgetting curves

A

14000+ ppts answered questions about publicised world events
Consistent with Ebbinghaus
Rapid loss at short intervals then slower loss
Forgetting rates DON’T depend on degree of learning

29
Q

Remembering can cause forgetting (RIF)

A

Retrieval can modify memories, recalling some information changes the record of what you remember

30
Q

Adaptive mechanism of remembering

A

Repeated retrieval strengthens a memory trace

Makes related, un-retrieved information less accessible

31
Q

Retrieval-induced forgetting (Anderson et al, 1994)

A

To allow successful retrieval, we use inhibition to resolve competition or interference arising during retrieval - we facilitate remembering by facilitating forgetting

32
Q

Initial RIF study by Anderson

A

Paired-associate learning - word pairs e.g. fruit-lemon, fruit-banana, metal-silver
Learning task e.g. retrieval practice with fruit-le___
Final test e.g. fruit-L, fruit-B, metal-S
Fruit-L = practiced relevant word (Rp+) - good recall due to benefits of practice

Fruit-B - unpracticed relevant word (Rp-) - poor recall due to inhibited to prevent interference (forgetting is cue-dependent)

Metal-S - unpracticed irrelevant word (NRP) - baseline control pair

33
Q

Why are some items inhibited?

A

Similar related words to practice words - inhibited because they compete during retrieval

34
Q

Another Anderson et al (1994) study - items of low and high taxonomic strength

A

Study with items of high and low taxonomic strength
fruit-orange = high strength
fruit-kiwi = low strength

Low taxonomic strength items compete loss, these items suffer less from RIF

35
Q

Storm et al (2007)

A

Directed forgetting
Participants studied a list then received instruction to forget this list and study a new list
“Forgotten” items should not compete and indeed don’t suffer from RIF

36
Q

Remembering and forgetting facts study

Practiced topic vs. related topic vs. baseline unrelated topics

A

Practiced topic: actor “is playing” either guitar // oboe
Guitar was the practiced item
Oboe was the shared topic
Related topic: teacher “is playing” saxophone // drum - shared relation items
Baseline topic with completely different sentence structure

Practiced item recall 60%
Shared topic recall 29%
Shared relation item recall 31%
Baseline topic 27%

Low integrators showed stronger impairment than high integrators

37
Q

Integration reduces RIF

A

Integrated bits of information are less likely to interfere and compete with one another

Study cue-target pairs: standard instructions vs. integrative instructions

Integrative instructions are less vulnerable . to RIF

In complex structures or networks; concepts are connected by associative links - network functions as a “unit” - presence of links = ACTIVATION not competition

38
Q

In complex structures or networks; concepts are connected by associative links

A

Networks function as a unit

Presence of links = activation, not competition

39
Q

Scaling up to stories and RIF e.g. eyewitness

A

Remembering and forgetting in eyewitness testimony

  • High motivation to remember
  • High likelihood of telling same story over and over
40
Q

Experiment 1 (RIF and stories)

A

Participants take policeman’s perspective; study pictures of objects stolen from 2 houses

41
Q

Experiment 2 (RIF and stories)

A

Participants study series of slides showing 2 events (2 women making bogus charity collections) .
clear RIF

42
Q

Time-course effects (Temporary effects)

A

Inhibits info irrelevant for current task

Weaker effects with delayed retrieval practice

43
Q

Education - classroom learning - experts

A

Due to paradox of expertise, experts have more knowledge - retrieval should result in more inhibition (more knowledge to inhibit) - but it doesn’t as INTEGRATION of knowledge PROTECTS against forgetting

44
Q

Comparing experts vs novices on symptoms of schizophrenia and autism (Anderson & Bell, 2001)

A

Test immediately or 1 day later

Results: novices = more inhibition (higher RIF effect)

45
Q

Downside of RIF

A

Simplification

46
Q

Can we suppress memories?

A

Freudian repression

We do have some control over unwanted memories (Anderson & Green, 2001)

47
Q

Link to amount of RIF and depression - studies show if there is deficit to one’s RIF –> can’t suppress negative memories

least RIF - clinically more depressed than individuals exhibiting the most retrieval-induced forgetting

A 
If a deficit in one's susceptibility to retrieval-induced forgetting can lead to negativity biases in autobiographical memory, and to an increased propensity for experi- encing anxiety and intrusive memories, then perhaps such a deficit stands as a significant risk factor for depression. In support of this hypothesis, correlations between retrieval-induced forgetting and depression have been observed. Groome and Sterkaj (2010), for example, found that 21 individuals diagnosed with clinical depression exhibited significantly less retrieval-induced forgetting than 21 control participants who were not clinically depressed. Similarly, in the study by Storm
and Jobe (2012b), when data from participants suffering at least mild levels of depression were analyzed (i.e., scores of 14 or higher on the BDI-II; Beck et al., 1996), a significant correlation was observed such that individuals exhibiting the least retrieval-induced forgetting were significantly more depressed (as measured by severity on the BDI-II) than were individuals exhibiting the most retrieval-induced forgetting
48
Q

Executive Deficit Hypothesis

A

People differ in the ability to suppress unwanted memories because they differ in executive control abilities

49
Q

Most inhibition seen in people with

A 
High working memory capacity
High inhibition
Highly traumatic experiences
Younger (vs older) adults
Older children
50
Q

RIF studies

A 
Memory phenomenon where remembering causes forgetting of other information - context of retrieval inhibition
3-phase experiment 
1. study
2. practice of some studied material 
3. final test of all studied material

studied/practiced words = Rp+
words related to practice words = Rp-
unrelated words = Nrp

51
Q

Who does this phenomenon occur?

A

Process actively inhibiting information
OR
Interference from other information in memory

52
Q

Which words suffer as a result of prior retrieval?

A

Rp- (words related to but unstudied)

poorly recalled in comparison to unrelated words

53
Q

Calculating RIF effect

A

Rp+ 81%
Rp- 55%
NRp 68%

NRp - Rp- = 68 - 55 = 13% RIF effect
take away related word recall from unrelated words

54
Q

Boundary conditions of RIF

A

SEMANTIC INTEGRATION
- Influence of integration of learned material - strength of the semantic relationship between competing targets

  • Duration of RIF effect - long retention interval
  • Effect of type of test format most susceptible to RIF - retrieval-cue test (paired associative learning) vs. free recall tests (inconsistent results)
  • Mood state and stress levels
  • some studies show RIF is only seen in cue-dependent tests NOT cue-independent
55
Q

Retrieval-induced forgetting summary

A

Memory is modified through the act of retrieval. Although retrieving a target piece of information may strengthen the retrieved information itself, it may also serve to weaken retention of related information. This phenomenon, termed retrieval-induced forgetting, has garnered substantial interest for its implications

56
Q

Anderson et al (1994) study

A

?

57
Q

Stickgold/Diekelman

Stickgold & Walker x 2

A

Sleep/consolidation studies

58
Q

Storm et al

A

RIF - learning/eyewitness/social cognition

59
Q

Anderson & Green

A

Suppressing unwanted memories by executive control (executive deficit hypothesis)

Memory & Language (6 decks)

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