Conservation Issues and Management

Question 1

L—— et al. 201- - Most forests have already been…

Answer 1

Laurence et al., 2014 logged / modified globally

Question 1

What three things can we consider about the effects of logging?
1. Effect on species c—–
2. Effect on IUCN r—l—— birds and such
3. Effect on species p——

Answer 1

1. Composition
2. Red-listed
3. Persistence

Question 2

Logging can change species composition
But most (75%) of primary forest species persists
Who did this study?

Answer 2

Edwards et al. 2011

Question 3

Define RIL

Answer 3

a host of strategies designed to reduce damage to forest structure, release of carbon, and to increase viability of timber harvest in the long run.

Question 4

Give some benefits of RIL

Answer 4

• Prerequisite for FSC
• Can increase timber price

Question 5

What do people do in RIL before harvest?

Answer 5

A comprehensive market plan where they geolocate marketable trees, as well as vulnerable and rare tree species such as mature ‘seed’ species

Question 6

What do people do during harvest for RIL?

Answer 6

Use directional felling and big tracked vehicles to reduce impact. Build roads efficiently towards the target tree species. May also cut lianas to stop other trees being dragged down too.

Question 7

As logging intensty gets higher, species richness may fall for taxa like a—— and in—— and b—- too, but decline may stop after a certain extent leaving large proportion of initial species remaining

Answer 7

amphibians, invertebrates, birds

Question 8

What is a disadvantage to lower intensity logging?

Answer 8

May have to go to wider area to meet timber requirements and logging intensity spread out.

Question 8

Edwards et al. 2—-: Birds, dung beetles and a— do better under land s—– than land -s—-

Answer 8

2014, ants, sparing, sharing

Question 9

——- et al. 20-1 does a meta analysis to show which uses of converted forests are most detrimental. A——-, b—– and p——- come out worst.

Answer 9

Gibson et al., 2011. Agriculture, burning and plantations

Question 10

Discuss conservation purchases. Which are the most value for money? Which organisations are already investing in them? Is it better to protect bigger or smaller areas and why?

Answer 10

Investing in protecting secondary-logged forests is more worthwhile as most species are persisting but timber value has gone down. Organisations like the RSPB are already making these investments. Bigger areas being protected are better for meta-populations, buffering primary forests and increasing connectivity

Question 11

How can cutting lianas and enrichment planting increase price under REDD+

Answer 11

Cutting lianas allows for more carbon sequestration as does planting trees of more varied species.

Question 12

Cutting lianas can also increase t—– production and f—- production - Cerullo and E—– 2019

Answer 12

Cerullo & Edwards 2019: timber, fruit

Question 13

Give some pros and cons of active restoration in tropical forests

Answer 13

Good - can accelerate carbon recovery of human-modified forests
Bad - susceptible species unaltered by restored vs naturally regenerating forest practices.

Question 14

what are roads important for? How much have roads expanded in recent years?

Answer 14

Giving access to remote areas, cheap labour, and cheaper land clearance. Roads have doubled in size since 2003

Question 15

Give the 4 ecological effects of roads

Answer 15

1. Habitat loss
2. Road mortality
3. Edge effects
4. Barrier effects and fragmentation

Question 16

What study reinforces that road construction may facilitate further clearance

Answer 16

Laurance et al. 2009 - 95% of deforestation within 1km of a road

Question 17

What animals may be susceptible to dying on cleared roads? Is species loss generally larger on wider or thinner roads?

Answer 17

Sunbathing lizards, species with large territories like ocelots, already rare species like the Florida panther. Amongst the taxa of amphibians, mammals, birds and reptiles, amphibians suffer the most losses, and losses are generally larger on THINNER roads

Question 18

B——- also easier to detect near roads

Answer 18

Bushmeat

Question 19

Give some examples of edge effects. What can change at the edge of a forest?

Answer 19

• Can be physical, chemical, strucutral, environmental and biological,
• Roads can change light levels, noise levels, increase pollution, wind speed and temperature, and can increase tree damage and death, and species turnover. Can also alter flow patterns of streams

Question 20

Created study of a fake road with just noise. What was learnt?

Answer 20

Ware et al. 2015: 31% of birds avoided road, and birds that stayed had lower body condition

Question 21

L——– et al. 2004 - did all bird species suffer from roads?

Answer 21

Laurence et al. 2004. No.Depended on niche. Edge loving / canopy bird species liked it, and terrestrial / solitary understory birds very much did not. Laurance et al. also found that some bird species would NOT cross roads thus becoming isolated

Question 22

Roads can be barriers to g— f— and isolating populations can lead to higher extinction risk due to demographic and e——- stocaciticty and limits of a critical r—- like food

Answer 22

gene flow, environmental, resource

Question 23

Give the two main mitigation methods for roads

Answer 23

1. Reduce wildlife mortality
2. Increase permeability to allow dispersal

Question 24

Give some ways to reduce wildlife mortality

Answer 24

Barrier fencing
Road signs
Road closures (at key times such as crab migration)
Banning hunting
Under and overpasses
Rope bridges
Natural canopy connections

Question 25

Give some ways to allow dispersal across roads

Answer 25

Overpasses
Underpasses
Rope bridges
Gliding poles
Natural canopy connections

Question 26

What is the problem with mitigation methods for road planning? Give a citation - Ry——- et al. 2015

Answer 26

Rytwinski et al. 2015.
Often poorly tested and greenwashy. Need to test how many of these structures, if they work, where to put them etc.

Question 27

We can combine priority road-free areas with priority a——— areas to try and find lowest impact place to put roads. Another Laurance study. R—+ could play a role in where these areas conflict.

Answer 27

agricultural, REDD

Question 28

where is most human population growth now? Since when?

Answer 28

In urban areas, since 2005

Question 29

Give some findings from the M———s et al. 2— study around urbanisation

Answer 29

Macdonald’s et al
2008 - 8% of IUCN red-listed species primarily threatened by urbanisation
- ecoregions of high biodiversity importance are being urbanised
- some species already extinct from it
- with urbanisation massively increasing, mean distance of a protected area to a city is decreasing (ie. in cape town)

Question 29

at —– spatial scales, areas with higher biodiversity tend to have more people. This is as we too like the often warm wet environments that other species are enjoying. At —– spatial scales we also tend to develop areas with high biodiversity, as this is not ….

Answer 29

large, smaller, is not farmland / providing for us

Question 30

Give 5 things which can change within urban environments compared to rural / natural ones

Answer 30

Type of green space changes in amount, type and fragmentation
Urban heat islands
Pollution
Disturbance
Biotic interactions - domestic cats, non-native species

Question 30

Studies of UK urbanisation show species, including urban indicator species, to show a unimodal peak in numbers when plotted against housing density. Why is this? What is a problem here

Answer 30

Urban environments can often be more ecolgocially complex than our much depleted rural ones. Problematically UK legislation plans to build houses at these densities in which numbers are declining

Question 31

——— species are often urban avoiders.

Answer 31

Specialist. Generalist ones often do well

Question 32

In some areas, increase in ——— species compensates for loss of native species, thus species richness may appear to increase.

Answer 32

non-native / invasive

Question 33

There may be new and strong selective pressure on species in urban areas. C—— et al. —- showed less seeds of a species germinated in an urban area, and thus selection was acting on this species over a relatively small number of generations

Answer 33

Cheptou et al. 2008

Question 34

there may be more —pollination in urban areas, why?

Answer 34

self-pollination, as there are less pollinators

Question 35

What may happen to clutch size in urban areas? what may stop this from happening?

Answer 35

It may decrease. Supplementary feeding (bird-feeding) may stop this, if it can compensate for the natural food sources unavailable in urban areas.

Question 36

Recap: What are the 4 main ecosystem services

Answer 36

Cultural, provisional, regulatory and supporting (soil formation and nutrient recycling)

Question 37

Give some cultural services of nature?

Answer 37

Less stress
faster recovery from surgery
higher focus
contact with it may be key to inspiring people to care about nature
People growing up in green areas less likely to develop mental health conditions

Question 38

Give some regulatory services of trees in urban areas?

Answer 38

• Shade houses
• shade tarmac reducing heat island effect
• intercept rainfall & flood reduction
• store carbon - Davies et al. 2011 shows how if Leicester planted more trees then so much more carbon could be locked away in the city

Question 39

what is the difference between urban sprawl and urban densification? what are the trade-offs between these as a policy for future building in the future

Answer 39

urban sprawl is spread out. this lowers flood risk but destroys more rural habitats
urban densification is closer together. it increases flood risk but lowers habitat loss. however, carbon storage is also lower under densification

Question 40

in terms of agriculture, production of a—— products and c—— has increased due to g—— p——– and w—— diets

Answer 40

animal cereals, growing population, westernized

Question 41

Crop yields of major crops like soy, wheat and maize could be reduced due to CC. Cite the study.

Answer 41

Lobell et al. 2020

Question 41

Give the 4 main reasons for food price volatility

Answer 41

• Oil price volatility
• Food waste
• Reduced supply due to CC / pollution
• Commodity trading on the global market

Question 42

G—— et al. 20– finds that a —– of all food worldwide is wasted, especially in Western countries

Answer 42

Godfray et al. 2020 - a third of all food worldwide is wasted

Question 43

Around –% of urban expansion is expected to happen into cropland, reducing global crop yields by a small but significant percentage (1-4%) and agricultural expansion is generally happening in areas of h— importance for b——- such as SE Asia and Brazil

Answer 43

50%, high importance for biodiversity

Question 44

Globally, we adquire –% of NPP, higher in Western countries

Answer 44

30% (Imhoff et al. 2004)

Question 44

T/F area used to grow annual and perennial plants is expanding

Answer 44

TRUE, even in the tropics

Question 45

Agriculture is the biggest threat to b— numbers and threatened species globally, and the biggest threat to –% of threatened v——–

Answer 45

bird, 80%, vertebrates

Question 46

European bird populations show negative correlation with increased c—- y—-

Answer 46

Cereal yields

Question 47

K—– et al. 2—- - Only organic farms NEAR natural areas had enough pollination by bees to produce marketable m—–, due to natural areas providing abundant and varied bee species

Answer 47

Kremen et al. 2001

Question 48

Livestock found to outcompete wild ungulates (and other species) competing for the same food source. A solution to this may be eating the wild animals instead, but what are the downsides of this (4)?

Answer 48

• Need for legislative change
• Needs Enforcement
• Needs suitable quotas
• May lead to increase in bushmeat hunting

Question 49

C——— can motivate countries to change, but must be p——

Answer 49

certification, precise

Question 50

What bird species has benefited from UK compensation schemes for more environmental farming?

Answer 50

The cirl bunting, which needs stubble to feed on in winter and mixed grasslands paired with ripening cereals in the summer. These fell as farmland polarization increased, but are on the rise again.

Question 51

Compare the entry-level stewardship handbook to the higher-level stewardship handbook in terms of uptake and success.
Reminder - these are now replaced with ELMs - environmental land management schemes

Answer 51

Entry level - higher uptake, broader aims, less specific to sites, no monitoring of biodiversity response
Higher level - more site specific, lower uptake, has project officers and more clearly defined objectives

Question 52

ELMs are at risk from…

Answer 52

A changing government

Question 53

Agri-environmental schemes only found to have mild-moderate positive impacts, and common species were benefitting more than rare ones.
What could improve this?

Answer 53

Must be more specifically tailored by habitat

Question 54

Problems with assuming land-sparing always works best:

Answer 54

Assumes all species benefit more from this, which they do not
Assumes all inefficient farmland which is abandoned regenerates, which is not ALWAYS the case, ie. argentina, costa rica, Mexico etc.

Question 55

in density-yield graphs, land-sparing is best if the line is c—— and land-sharing if the line is c—–

Answer 55

concave, convex

Question 56

initially, PAs were created for r—— or r—— management purposes, then to preserve w——— (19th century) and nowadays to preserve s——, ha—— and e——– s——–

Answer 56

religious, resource, wilderness, species, habitat, ecosystem services.

Question 57

Which is the modern IUCN definition of an ecosystem service?
1. ‘a clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values’
‘2. an area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means’

Answer 57

1 is the 2008 definition. 2 is the 1994 definition.

Question 57

why do the IUCN categories exist? Give 4 reasons.

Answer 57

• To reduce confusion over PA purpose
• To encompass the many reasons we may have a PA
• To promote international standards
• To help with global accounting and comparisons

Question 58

Fill in the gaps for these 7 IUCN categories:
Ia - S— N—– r——- : protected area managed mainly for science
* Ib - W——— a—: protected area managed mainly for wilderness protection *
II - N——– p—: protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation
* III - N——- M——: protected area managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features e.g. Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe
IV - H—–/S—— M——- Area: protected area managed mainly for conservation through management intervention
* V - P——– L——-/S——: protected area managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation e.g. Dartmoor NP
* VI - M——- R——- P——- Ar—: protected area managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems e.g. Kiunga Marine National Reserve, Kenya

Answer 58

Ia- Strict nature reserve
Ib - Wilderness area
II - National park
III - National monument
IV - Habitat / species management area
V - Protected landscape / seascape
VI - Managed resource protected areas

Question 59

T/F increasing PAs has halted biodiversity loss

Answer 59

False

Question 60

P—— et al. —– - Expanding PAs to 17% could greatly increase coverage of species range, but this would be reduced by projections of conflicting land use pressures. Calls for more global cooperation across countries

Answer 60

Pouzols et al. 2014

Question 61

What is the PA coverage target by 2030? and 2050?

Answer 61

30% by 2030 for land and sea, and also discussion about 50% by 2050, for land and sea.

Question 62

Is there enough valuable land left to protect with PAs? What proportion of ecoregions are already imperilled?

Answer 62

24% of ecoregions already imperilled. Some are well protected though (12%) and some could still reach the target with work (37%) - Dinerstein et al. 2017

Question 63

There is a SIGNIFICANT trade-off between PAs and c——- loss. This does better under a land-s—— initiative, but as we know, this may not be better for nature

Answer 63

calorie, land-sharing (Mehrabi et al. 2018)

Question 64

Give the 5 major problems for PA establishment
Remember:
B—–distribution
Overall c——–

Answer 64

1. Overall coverage (too small)
2. Increased isolation
3. Decreasing size, especially in those newly established
4. Insufficient protection
5. Biased distribution

Question 65

Give an example of biased distributions being a problem in PAs

Answer 65

Greenland - no competing land pressures but not especially biodiverse. Worldwide, not many endangered species are even represented in PAs

Question 66

Give a statistic of size being a problem with PAs

Answer 66

more than 50% are less than 10km squared in size

Question 67

what percentage of protected areas are well protected? What percentage of terrestrial ecosystems are protected?

Answer 67

only 10% :(( 16% protected

Question 68

what did the Laurence et al. 2012 study on PAs find out? Good or bad news for PAs?

Answer 68

• Looked at PAs in the tropics
  -even suceeding reserves had some factors which were declining in health
• By most metrics, PAs in the tropics were doing badly.
• Reserves which are well protected ARE increasing in health though

Question 69

why is there an INCREASE in proportional protection across species in PAs and why is this not necessarily great?

Answer 69

Sooo everywhere around the PAs is just degrading so species move more into these PAs overtime, although PA expansion does contribute a little to this. Even this finding shows that PAs can help slow extinction rates

Question 70

Give the 3 main future threats for PAs

Answer 70

1. Climate change - although PAs will still be useful under these projections
2. Protected area downgrading & degradation - especially mining companies and local people wanting to reclaim their natural resources. this is more incentive to work with local people and not against them.
3. Invasive species expanding into PAs

Question 71

What are the 2 PA management options? Which one is probably the best?

Answer 71

1. Park / fortress conservation excluding local people - a bad idea generally, has been shown that conservation efforts can be just as successful when they have positive effects on local people.
2. people / community based conservation - people allowed to benefit from their local resources in return for respecting PAs. Such as allowing local people to harvest some seahorses for Chinese medicine as they’re worth a lot, but must not kill pregnant males. A small PA is set up to recruit for the population. Works soo well.

Question 72

what are the three main reasons for habitat restoration?

Answer 72

1. For ecosystem service provision - most ecosystem services being degraded. Paired with combating emissions, is the most important thing we could do for our planet.
2. To conserve species - REMEMBER, only 10% of PAs well-connected
3. To meet PA targets (2030/2050 targets)

Question 73

The IUCN classifies ecosystems as they do species, but in terms of their closeness to c——-, instead of extinction. Thus after this they go, critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, near threatened, least concern and data deficient.

Answer 73

collapsing

Question 74

Give the 5 criteria which make a threatened ecosystem be more prioritised

Answer 74

1. Reduction in geographic distribution
2. Restricted distribution
3. Degradation
4. Probability of collapse
5. Disruption of biotic processes / interactions

Question 75

An assessment of terrestrial, marine and freshwater ecosystems for the level of threats they were facing had what takeaways?

Answer 75

• less than half of all ecosystems were of least concern.
• No marine ecosystems had collapsed, only a very very small fraction of terrestrial ones had and around 10% of freshwater ones
• A good third of freshwater and marine ecosystems were data deficient

Question 76

The aral sea is –% of it’s former area. It has higher s—–, way less fish d—– and problems with t—– d—- clouds causing high infant mortality, twice that of the surrounding regions. The fishing industry is gone. Reduced i—— and r—— improvements are slightly combating it. It goes to show that c—— ecosystems cannot usually be f—– restored

Answer 76

10, salinity, diversity, toxic dust clouds, irrigation, river, collapsed, fully

Question 77

what does ERC stand for? Define it. What can it’s problems be?

Answer 77

Ecosystem restoration concession. A legal agreement or arrangement typically established between a government authority or landowner and a third party, such as a conservation organization or a private company, with the primary goal of restoring and rehabilitating a degraded or damaged ecosystem.Yes, can protect biodiversity but can be used for suspicious purposes such as building a road to transport COAL in the Harrapan rainforest. Can also just be expensive, with monitoring costs and that.

Question 78

Give the main (simplified) principles of ERC. There are 5

Remove all —— to the ecosystem
Make targets ———, across —- and —–term scales
Consider ——— interests and ——- goals
Have ———– and policy support across local, national and international scales
Have a diversity of ———- approaches

Answer 78

1. Remove all threats to the ecosystem
2. Make targets measurable, and be measured across long and short term scales
3. Consider stakeholder interests and diverse goals
4. Have regulation and policy support across local, national and international scales
5. Have a diversity of scalable approaches

Question 79

Give an example of assisted migration / reintroduction

Answer 79

The swamp tortoise to wetlands in Australia it has been absent from

Question 80

Define conservation translocation

Answer 80

An intentional release of a species to improve it’s population or restore natural ecosystem processes

Question 81

define assisted colonisation

Answer 81

reintroducing species in it’s once native range to avoid extinction

Question 82

define ecological replacement

Answer 82

reintroducing a species to provide an ecosystem function which has been lost

Question 83

what is the difference between population reinforcement and reintroduction?

Answer 83

If members of that species are already present in the area or not.

Question 84

Fill in these IUCN reintroduction guidelines:

1. F——-: The species must be shown to have been previously present and be self-maintaining. Need knowledge of the species’ natural history and understanding of the likely ecological effects. Re-introduction should be modelled to predict its outcome. and a Population Viability Analysis should be done .
2. A———: Suitable sites with good habitat within former range must exist and cause of the original extinction must be identified and eliminated .
3. P——: Re-introduced animals should be of the same or similar genetic stock. Must not endanger the status of source populations. and should be free of pathogens and screened by a vet. Animals from captive stock must have been appropriately reared. Captive stock must be able to adapt behaviourally.
4. S——— considerations: Project should have long-term financial and political support. Should be a cost-benefit analysis for the local human population and local people talked to to attain opinions and support. Needs to be Government support. *Risks to life and property need to be assessed and accepted
5. R——- Pre and post release monitoring is needed. R—– must be supervised by vet. There needs to be a public relations programme. Should be continued scientific evaluation that is later published.

Answer 84

Feasability
Appropriateness
Provenance
Socio-economic considerations
Release

Question 85

The reintroduction of the common crane and the capercallie are examples of what problem with reintroduction in the UK? What is another example from outside of the UK?

Answer 85

The controversy that time and effort and money may be put into reintroduce species which are of least concern on a global scale. The Californian condor introductions also cost 2 MILLION but birds still being poisoned by lead.

Question 86

How many species reintroductions are classed as successful according to the IUCN?

Answer 86

38%. Only 3.5% classed as failure. 64% are classed as being either successful or highly successful ( a smaller percentage). Good

Question 87

A study on Swiss plants and birds showed that only 4% of conservation efforts were successful. Why may this have been? 3 main reasons

Answer 87

• Insufficient funds from government / corporations
• Individual choices
• Non-compliance such as illegal logging
• Repealed legislation like under Donald Trump / Bolsonaro

Question 88

How do human behaviours towards supporting conservation tend to differ in developing or developed countries?

Answer 88

• In developed countries, people can probably fund conservation but don’t and prioritise other things.
• In developing countries, they may not be able to support them because of perceived ‘legitamate’ development issues they face.

Question 89

Describe how Coldwell & Evans 2017 tried to quantify levels of conservation support. What two issues did environmental research often fall below?

Answer 89

Knocked on peoples doors and:
- Asked them to say what issues they’d give donations to hypothetically. This was compared with actual donations given. For actual and hypothetical, environment ranked below vulnerable people and medical research
- Asked them to rank commitment to environmental sustainability (CESS) on 1-12 scale
Only 16% scored 11 or more, but was a wide range

Question 90

What are coupled natural-human systems? You can use the Asian Elephant as an example.

Answer 90

Describes how humans and nature feedback on each other. For example, with Indian elephant conflict, habitat loss from humans has brought them more into contact with us. Thus, elephants are killed by people, and elphants kill people and their crops.

Question 91

Conservation a—— and conservation l—— can be used to try and engage public with conservation. What are some pros, and problems with both of these?

Answer 91

Advertising: Unproven & simplified. RSPB ad led to increase in donations, but may have been just us leaving financial crash.
Labelling: Can be misleading about companies actual sustainability. Some eco-labelling is weak, and there’s no consequence for people not being able to differ between effective and ineffective eco-labelling.

Question 92

The three ‘traditional’ ways to engage people in conservation was to give a financial incentive (REDD+), educate, and allow people to engage in nature connectedness (David Attenborough). Give the pros and cons of these

Answer 92

• people are not always rationale with financial decisions. Many are in debt, and 75% of our decision making is said to be illogical rather than logical. An example is the poor uptake of skylark plots despite their good financial benefits.
• People who CARE about environment tend to be ones taking more, longer flights - does not reflect in actions - Alcock et al. 2017
• People visiting natural spaces frequently is not a consistent correlator with them caring for the environment - Coldwell & Evans 2017

Question 92

Define Nudging Behaviour

Answer 92

Describes contextual variables that can moderate behaviour via automatic cognitive processes.

Question 93

Describe each of these Contextual Examples for changing behaviours:
Commitments to goals
Changing Defaults -
Messengers -
Social norms -
Priming -
Salience -
Traditional:

Answer 93

Meat-free mondays for example
Switching menus to vegetarian by default.
Having tiktokers / influencers prompts behavioural change
changing expectations of others, peer pressure.
Social norms - peer pressure essentially. If everyone used reusable cups, maybe you would too
Subconscious information and sensory cues. If people live in sustainable buildings, they are more likely to live in more environmentally friendly ways
Reminders and message framing that capture attentions - Betterpoints
Financial and educational

Question 94

What are the 7 main contextual ways of changing peoples behaviours?

Answer 94

1. Commiting them to goals
2. Changing defaults
3. Having messengers
4. Changing social norms
5. Priming
6. Salience
7. Traditional

Question 95

B—– et al. —- tested contextual methods and found nudging behaviour to be generally quite effective. Suggested that combining f—— and c—— methods could be the most effective. Financial generally outperformed e——-

Answer 95

Byerly et al. 2017. Financial & Contextual. Educational

Question 96

Social selection. What are the 2 main reasons why similar people are said to stick together?

Answer 96

1. They are similar
2. They influence each others behaviour and become MORE similar
   Studies showed informational exchange in shark fisheries could save many many sharks (46,000). This is an example of changing social norms.

Question 97

What is the principle of co-design? Give an example

Answer 97

To work with local people and knowledge in conservation projects to obtain workable solutions.
Example: Reducing by-catch of albatross / seabirds from fisheries with weighted lines, tori lines and night-fishing in South Africa. Reduced by-catch by 99%. Locals didn’t want to be catching these birds anyways.

Question 98

What is CBNRM?

Answer 98

Community-based natural resource managements. Encourages locals, supervised by conservationists, to come up with viable sustainable which work for them.

Question 99

Give an example of a CBNRM working?

Answer 99

With the Maasai in Kenya. Getting them to track lions for money instead of kill them. They also got to find lost cattle, and lost children via doing this, and people doing this gained reputability in the community by being literate. Did increase predations, but also scientific knowledge on the number and distribution of lions.

Question 100

What factors can commonly make CBNRM not work? Give an example of CBNRM not working?

Answer 100

Human migration, environmental degradation and land being bought up by mining companies, conflicting goals etc.
An example of it not working is in Annapurna. Initially set up school for locals and discouraged them from taking too much firewood which harmed pheasant populations.
Then a road was built to Kathmandu
Locals found alternative education, and also started picking rare fungus to transport for Chinese medicine and make more money.
This scheme should have had Horizon-scanning and constant evaluation to prevent this.

Question 101

Is punishment effective. How much higher do some fines need to be, ie. For the wildlife trade?

Answer 101

No. can be seen as ‘permit to misbehave’. Fines may not be high enough such as in Southern Amazon rainforest. For wildlife trade, found to need to be 10-100 times higher to be effective

Question 102

What are some problems with using ecosystem services to get people to support conservation? Cite the studies which investigated this

Answer 102

Naidoo et al. 2008 showed that ecosystem services don’t necessarily correlate with high biodiversity areas.
For the general public, Goff et al. 2017 found that they were less attracted to this idea, maybe as they felt like the companies it concerned should pay and not them.

Question 103

Give an example of ecosystem services working as a method of attracting companies to conservation efforts.

Answer 103

United utilities restoring peatlands effectively to improve their water quality. Has helped with bird pops, CC, and restoring peatland.

Question 104

G—— et al. —- showed that framing conservation as ES could attract 4 times as much funding by generating 3 times as much corporate interest.

Answer 104

Goldman et al. 2004

Question 105

explain the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations in conservation.
Which has been shown to be more effective?

Answer 105

1. a spontaneous joy and interest in something linked to you’re own autonomy
2. Imposed externally, such as government fining people

Intrinsic. Appealing to peoples intrinsic motivations for preserving the world 3 times more likely to generate support

Question 106

Ecosystem services could appeal to people more if they are reframed in terms of achieving j—–. and linking e—— health, h—- health and a—– health. Seen in European Justice Foundation fining companies associated with forced labour in fisheries and such, which also damage environment. Also UK gov being sued for shit air quality which effects the poorest more.

Answer 106

Justice. Environmental, human and animal.

Question 107

What do the SDGs do generally?

Answer 107

Blend human-devwelopment goals with conservation

Question 108

Give some faults of measuring progress on the SDGs

Answer 108

Same indicators for different targets, making them less measurable and lack specificity.Also some indicators used which are just not applicable to that goal.

Question 109

New vs ‘true’ conservation, whose side are you on?

Answer 109

New is neccesary as it garners support, and it is right and important to help poorest people whilst working in conservation. This helps conservation efforts too. Yes, it is dangerous using economic growth as a measure of progress in conservation, as this has done so much damage, but conservation efforts are shown to be SO much more effective when you consult communities involved too.

Question 110

definition: Situations that occur when two or more parties with strongly held opinions clash over conservation objectives and when one party is perceived to assert it’s interests at the expense of another.

Answer 110

Conservation Conflict

Question 111

Give the 2 types of conservation conflicts

Answer 111

1. direct human-wildlife conficts
2. Biodiversity conflicts, where one party once to conserve and the other has different priorities

Question 112

Give how Carnivores can impact human life

Answer 112

Mortality, recreational activities and economic loss via livestock killing.

Question 112

Attitudes towards carnivores are c——- and people may place i——- v—– on them which could foster cooperation

Answer 112

changing, intrinsic value

Question 113

The case study on H– h—— and grouse makes the case that e——-, s——- and s——— have to work together to achieve goals

Answer 113

Hen harriers, ecology, sociollogy and stakeholders

Question 114

What did the Webb and Raffaeli —– paper investigate?

Answer 114

2008.
Whether language varied between pro-hedgehog and pro-waterbird reporting in an Outer Hebridean island. SNH wanted to eradicate hedgehogs
People talked about the same issue in different ways
Anti-hedgehog cull - more emotive, welfare, economic and hedgehog orientated
Pro-cull -More conservation-based, scientific, bird-based and local
Both parties valued nature but newsstories generally took a more Hedgehog approach

Question 115

The Cod is God wars (Gray et al. 2008) had what main takeaways?

Answer 115

• Consensus dificult to reach
• Management required difficult decisions to be made
• There are often multiple plausible interpretations of the same advice - The Rashomon effect

Question 116

Bridging n—— and s—– sciences is important. Must try and think of different types of knowledge as c———— to one another, not right or wrong

Answer 116

natural, social.
Complementary.

Question 117

Corals are Cnidarians. Primary reef-building corals are of the order A———, with true Stony Corals being in the order S———–

Answer 117

Anthozoans, Scleratinia

Question 118

What are the 3 main functions of Zooxanthellae?

Answer 118

1. Influence calficication process. More photosynthesis thus calfication when it is sunny
2. Provide nutrients - photosynthesis can produce carbon, transferred to host in form of amino acids and fatty acids, glucose, and glycerol. System is sometimes autotrophic, but can be heterotrophic too. Varies with conditions (light, depth, season etc.)
3. Remove waste products - use phosphorus and nitrogen from waste product in their host which could become toxic (ammonia) if built up. then transfer nutrients back to the host.

Question 119

How do corals form their skeletons?

Answer 119

Rates of calcification are controlled by function of a specific calicoblastic tissue (probably via direct roll in crystal formation), and photosynthetic contributions of symbiotic zooxanthellae.

Question 120

Give some sources of stress to corals (6)

Answer 120

Salinity reduction
Prolonged low-tide
Disease
Pollution
Temperature extremes
High light levels

Question 121

What is classed as severe bleaching, and not just physiological bleaching?

Answer 121

When 60-90% of symbionts are expelled. Biomass reduced in host.

Question 122

How are El Nino events harming corals? What study showed this

Answer 122

Temperatures just 1-2 degrees above average can cause severe bleaching in corals/ El Nino more frequent and severe, likely not going to allow for full recovery. Tropics in la nina now warmer than they were in el nino 3 decades ago ( Hughes et al. 2018) Tropical sea temperatures now. Can additionally interact with other stressors (ocean acidification). Thus annual bleaching could become the norm.

Question 123

Why is coral loss bad for wider ecosystem?

Answer 123

Fish Eat It and rely on it for Topgraphic Complexity

Question 124

About – % of GBR died in 2016 bleaching event. Mainly in Northern barrier reed.

Answer 124

30

Question 125

Give some cautionary optimism on the GBR? (4)

Answer 125

• Know more about causal mechanisms for bleaching
• Bleached reef can recover in many cases
• Meso-photic reefs could be a source of refuge for shallower reefs.
• Forecasting better now and could be used to protect reefs forecasted to bleach

Question 126

what happens to most plastic after use?

Answer 126

Most is discarded - 80% in landfills
Some is recycled, a tiny proportion the second time.
Some is incinerated
Bioplastics only account for 1% of global plastic production.
Sunlight fragments it into microplastic (mm-nanometres in size)

Question 127

Nearly 2% of fishing gear is lost in the oceans annually. Cite this Stat

Answer 127

Richardson et al. 2022

Question 128

Cite this study.
- Looked at worldwide waste disposal within 50 km of the sea
- Vase majority of plastic originated from 10 river catchements, 8 of which were in Asia
- Mos plastic available to enter the oceans was in SE Asia.
- UK had NO mismanaged litter but littering was a problem. 4g per person per day.

Answer 128

Jambeck et al. 2015

Question 129

Microplastics have been found consistently in deep-sea i——– for - decades.

Answer 129

invertebrates, 4 decades - Courtene-Jones et al. 2019

Question 130

Who did this study?
What was one pro of more plastics being in the sea?
Tries to demonstrate what is ACTUAL threat and what is PERCEIVED threats across different sizes of marine debris and different scales of biological organisation (cell, organism, community etc.)
Most impacts found to be individual organisms deaths due to plastic debris
ingestion, entanglement and smothering.
Demonstrated impacts were derelict fishing gear smothering coral.

Answer 130

Rochman et al. 2016
On a plus side, plastic bottles and glass jars creating a hard substrate for things to colonise in a soft benthic environment.

Question 131

Evidence of effects of m———– on marine organisms and communities is scarce, but does exist
Evidence of effects of m——— at these scales of biological organisation is very hard to find, but studies have suggested they have the potential to ———– impact aquatic biota across taxa - Foley et al. 2018

Answer 131

macrodebris
microplastics
negatively

Question 132

Plastic waste is mainly an issue of poor w—-m———– in major p——– countries.
There is only so much reducing s—-u– plastics can do but is still good.
Ocean cleanups by NGOs are well-intentioned, but can be poorly researched such as…

Answer 132

waste-management, producer
single-use
scooping up floating marine life in your plastic catching nets.

Question 133

M—— and o—- and f——- f—— make up t——- of pounds in global trade, falling only below agriculture and forestry produces

Answer 133

metals & ores
Fossil fuels
trillions

Question 134

A—– et al. 2—- - Gold mining increasing rapidly, especially since financial crash.
Used satellite data, aircraft surveys and fieldwork to show this. Other studies also find significant forest loss due to gold mining

Answer 134

Asner et al. 2012

Question 135

What are the main two types of mining? What are the primary associated risks with these two types?

Answer 135

1. Low volume, high value. Diamonds, gold. Can cause wars, such as in Congo. May be big pollution associated with artisanal miners. Products must be flown in and out.
2. High volume, low value. Can be driven out. Iron ore, copper, mined by large corporations. Big infrastructure investments to take products out

Question 136

–% of mines found to be within 5-10km of a PA. Ecological impacts of mine unsurprisingly extend beyond mines footprint

Answer 136

13

Question 137

Direct deforestation from mining can be smaller than that from other industries, such as commercial and subsistence agriculture. Give 5 indirect impacts of mining.

Answer 137

Expansion of roads, rails, pipelines
Access to sparsely populated regions leading to land clearing and bushmeat hunting
Rush of migrant workers / artisanal miners
Synergies with industrial-scale agriculture
Investments, weak governance, corruption, civil unrest = RESOURCE CURSE

Question 138

Define a resource curse

Answer 138

The downside to having a valuable natural resource, especially in areas with corruption or weak governance. Could lead to civil unrest, and environmental legislation being subverted or completely ignored.

Question 139

What are some positives of new mines if they are managed well? (4)

Answer 139

Large-scale mines can create biodiversity set-asides (Edwards et al. 2014)
Can alleviate poverty if avoiding corruption and weakening governments.
Improve transport networks may decrease farm yield gaps as they can get agrichemicals more easily → helps land-sparing potentially. (Edwards et al. 2014)
Projects WITH low-income artisanal miners can reduce mercury pollution.

Question 140

What is the situation of the Congo basin and new mine creation?

Answer 140

• Good news is that lots of congo basin does not overlap with valuable mineral deposits.
• The bad news is there is a lot of potential for oil here.
• Endemic Bird Areas at risk
• 23% of PAs could be 5-10km of a potential mine, leading to degradation, downsizing and degazettement (removing a PAs protective title)
• Governments may well care more about mining investments than protection.

Question 141

Many global superpowers have invested in African mining. What could this lead to?

Answer 141

Infrastrucutre developments, like roads and rails, cutting up the Congo basin

Question 142

Fill in these policy options for mining:
1. Promote i———- land use planning for mining and associated i———— development
2. Strength g———-‘s capacities to plan, manage, and monitor the mining sector (ASM and LSM)
3. Promote innovative mechanisms to offset impacts
4. Improve management of a——– and s——scale mining
5. Carbon payments
6. Identify market c—– points - l——-, p———– and c——- boycotts to reduce conservation losses in mining. Five major stock exchanges where mining prospectors (“Juniors”) sell prospects to Majors
External to tropics = less corruptible, perhaps
7. Mining r————. Naturally is very slow on mined land compared to agriculture. Planted tree recovery possible if you replace 15cm of topsoil.
8. Promote metal r———- . 10 billion USD of raw materials going In Bin

Answer 142

Promote integrated land use planning for mining and associated infrastructure development
Strength governments capacities to plan, manage, and monitor the mining sector (ASM and LSM)
Promote innovative mechanisms to offset impacts
Improve management of artisanal and small-scale mining
Carbon payments
Identify market choke points - lobbying, publicity and consumer boycotts to reduce conservation losses in mining. Five major stock exchanges where mining prospectors (“Juniors”) sell prospects to Majors
External to tropics = less corruptible.
7. Mining reforestation. Naturally is very slow on mined land compared to agriculture. Planted tree recovery found to be possible if you replace 15cm of topsoil.
7. Promote metal recycling / buying secondhand - 10 billion USD of raw materials going In Bin

Question 143

Define land degradation

Answer 143

Overexploitation of natural capital
Any reduction or loss in the biological or economic productive capacity of land caused by human activities, often magnified by CC

Question 144

Give some impacts of land degradation. 4-5.

Answer 144

Loss of landscape productivity & resilience - more drought / flood / landslide prone
Desertification
Ecological, social and economic threats
40% of intrastate conflicts linked to natural resources - 70% of nations identify CC / land degradation as national security risk

Question 145

what does FLR stand for?

Answer 145

Forest and Landscape Restoration

Question 146

What does the BONN challenge aim to do? What are it’s pluses?

Answer 146

• Work with stakeholders to reverse land degradation, reducing trade-offs between conflicting interests.
  -Provides for an agreed, balanced combination of ES and goods
• Could compliment and enhance food production with undercropping and such but NO PLANTATIONS

Restore area almost entire size of UN
- Already on track - sequestered almost 20 gigatonnes of C02
- Can get benefits in terms of ecotourism and local development
- :( Neocolonialism - paying South to clean up our mess

Question 147

Forest regeneration on sheep pastures is not economically viable T/F

Answer 147

False. It could break even at £4 per tonne of C02

Question 148

What 3 things can count as FLR?

Answer 148

• Natural forest regeneration
• Silvicultures - undercropping, grazing livestock in forest etc.
• Monocultures

Question 149

Tree planting not always best choice for landscape such as in ……… where much carbon is stored underground

Answer 149

Savannahs / the peak district

Question 150

Gilroy et al. 2014
Looks at birds and dung beetles in low-intensity pasture → primary → secondary forest. What did they find?

Answer 150

Mature secondary forests have similar biodiversity patterns to primary.
Rare species recovered too. In mature forests, 83% of species back, in occurence probabilities only 21% lower than primary. Good 🙂

Question 151

S——– forests can recover in d——-, not c——–

Answer 151

secondary, decades, centuries

Question 152

Some FLR doesnt actually take specific considerations for biodiversity, such as C—- monoculture plantations. Mixed FLR does not need to be more expensive though

Answer 152

China

Question 153

Give some studied trade-offs between natural regeneration and tree planting in terms of soil erosion, biodiversity and carbon aboveground storage

Answer 153

Natural regeneration is better for soil erosion and biodiversity
Carbon aboveground is pretty neutral between the two, until harvest takes place
Timber obviously does better in plantations
Sooo where timber is not explicitly goal, should promote natural regeneration.

Question 154

FLR commitments could harness m—— f—— to incentivise FLR.
Must tackle ‘free-rider’ approach where b———— (us) do not pay.
Growing cost advantages with increasing s— of operations. This is also good as increasing s— increases ES benefits too
Must not exacerbate existing i——– such as women not owning land

LOOK AT LECTURE 14 FOR PROS AND CONS OF LINKING W. MARKET

Answer 154

market forces
beneficiaries
size
inequalities

Question 155

Cost of conservation actions is —- and not often ———

Answer 155

high, prioritised.

Question 156

Protected area success —– with habitat, altitude, region, population density etc.

Answer 156

varies

Question 157

What did Beresford et al. 2013 study? What did they find out?

Answer 157

Studied PAs in Africa, specifically IBAs (important bird and biodiversity areas)
Matched PAs to nonPAs accounting for confounding variables
Used satellite imagery
IBAs DID reduce bird loss
Bigger IBAs did better
Buffer area for both did not so good :(

Question 158

Briefly describe the EU birds directive. Was it a success?

Answer 158

Binding law, increasingly scientific, international approach to protecting bird species across the EU. EU birds did better after it’s introduction.

Question 159

Give some examples of highly-motivated people in conservation

Answer 159

1. Carl Jones. Always wanted to be conservationist. Helped captively rear Mauritius Kestrel and Pink Pigeon back from extinction on Mauritius, but both now struggling again.
2. Doug Boucher. Massive promoter of clear scientific communication which is accessible to all with Union of Concerned Scientists
3. Daniel Katz, developer of rainforest alliance
4. Diana Fossey. Lead gorilla conservation in DRC. Lived alone in mountains, killed by local people. DRC locals now lead conservation efforts like Angele Kavira Nzalamingi

Question 160

Conservation success likely lies in the capacity for…

Answer 160

passionate people to work hard despite lack of monetary incentive

Question 161

Give an example of why accuracy in conservation reporting matters, as ‘the truth is already bad enough’

Answer 161

‘only 100 cod left in North Sea’ headlines in 2012, when in fact this was just fish over the age of 13, a very old age in Cod Years
- Also WWF reporting 85 % of fisheries at or beyond biological limits - true, but miselading. Only 34.2% were actually OVER fished

Question 162

What point did the Guardian article ‘Bottom trawling is realeasing as much C02 as air travel’ make?

Answer 162

• Even high profile articles require scrutiny
• Modelling used in Sala et al. study found to overestimate carbon released to several magnitudes
• Problematic, as carbon credits could be given for businesses to stop trawling, whilst they still continue with other Actually degrading activities

Question 163

What is the evidence for the ‘fishing down the foodweb’ hypothesis? What final ‘conservation lesson’ does this teach us?

Answer 163

Supported in SOME older studies, but Essington et al. 2008 finds that mainly lower-trophic level species are fished AS WELL as those in the higher levels insetad of fishing down the food web so much.
Trophic levels also found to not actually correlate with price
Mean trophic level also appears to have increased since the 80s
Shows us that we must be wiling to change conclusions based on new data

Question 164

Duarte et al. 2020 - give the 4 major historic and current pressures on the oceans

Answer 164

• Climate change
• Chemical Pollution
• Habitat loss
• Hunting / overexploitation

Question 165

D—– et al. 2020. Give the 4 impactful interventions for our oceans

Answer 165

Duarte et al. 2020
Regulate hunting - IWC for example
Manage fisheries - enforcing better management and regular scientific assessment on all fisheries
Improve water quality - usually done via international policy frameworks. Baltic sea = positive recovery story
Protect and restore habitats

Question 166

When was whale-hunting ‘paused’ by the IWC?

Answer 166

Decided on in 1982, and actually happened in 1985-1986, but it stayed in place and whales recovered marvelously, such as fin whales recovering from near-extinction in the southern hemisphere

Question 167

Explain the difference between bottom-up and top-down fishery management

Answer 167

Bottom up is from environment and predation
Top down is from science-based advice and fisheries management

Question 168

S———— improvement in water quality can be achieved from quite s———— measures but full recovery may require more c—– actions which conflict with other p—– targets such as agriculture

Answer 168

Substantial improvement in water quality can be achieved from quite straightforward meeasures but full recovery may require more costly actions which conflict with other policy targets such as agriculture

Question 169

Coastal and marine habitats can be protected and restored, and this has long-term benefits for people AND nature - T/F. What does NEOLI stand for?

Answer 169

True
MPAs must be no-take zones, enforced, old, large and isolated to be effective. Enforced is especially important

Question 170

What does Duarte et al. 2020 identify as the 4 potential roadblocks to marine recovery?
What extra one does Tom Webb add on?

Answer 170

1. Natural variability and intensification of environmental extremes
2. Unexpected natural or social events
3. Increased pressure on marine resources and habitats from growing pop
4. Failure to meet commitments to reduce and mitigate CC - “Climate change is the critical backdrop against which all future rebuilding efforts will play out”
5. Gaps and biases in our understanding of marine ecosystems - lots of fisheries not assessed - 1/2 of all, especially in small-scale fisheries in mangroves and especially ecologically important areas

Question 171

T/F It is likely not achievable to achieve substantial and complete conservation of our oceans? D—- et al. 2020

Answer 171

FALSE - Duarte et al. 2020 thinks this is likely possible

Question 172

What can protecting marine / coastal habitats help to do? ~5

Answer 172

It can help to enhance carbon sequestration, coastal protection, biodiversity, reproductive capacity of marine organisms and fishers’ catch n income.

Question 173

What are the most important metal trade links? Where are they going to?

Answer 173

Primarily China, with many key suppliers being from developing economies like Chile, Peru, Brazil and India - concentrated in a few nations