consent and control 1925-40

Question 1

what was the primary aim of the Italian Fascist regime in terms of education?

Answer 1

to indoctrinate young people to ensure ongoing support for the regime and create a strong foundation for the new fascist state

Question 2

what changes did Giovanni Gentile, the Education Minister, implement in schools?

Answer 2

he introduced standardized exams, focused on fewer but better schools, ignored illiteracy rates, and discriminated against women
attendance at school dropped by 100,000 in the first four years of Fascist rule

Question 3

what was the illiteracy rate?

Answer 3

around 30% in 1921

Question 4

how did schools change to spread the cult of Il Duce?

Answer 4

a portrait of Mussolini was hung in every classroom alongside the king’s portrait, and teachers were required to refer to Mussolini’s genius and heroic qualities

Question 5

what significant change occurred in the curriculum starting in 1928?

Answer 5

one authorised govt textbook, libro unico, was introduced, emphasising Italian history, literature, and the achievements of the Roman Empire, Renaissance, and Fascism

Question 6

how did Mussolini’s regime ensure teacher cooperation?

Answer 6

teachers who opposed the regime were dismissed, and from 1931, teachers were forced to take an oath of loyalty to the regime.
by 1933, all teachers’ associations had to join the PNF (National Fascist Party)

Question 7

what was the number of uni students in Italy during the Fascist period?

Answer 7

it increased from 54,000 in 1921 to 165,000 in 1942, with students coming from more diverse backgrounds

Question 8

what was the purpose of the Gioventi Universitaria Fascista (University Fascist Youth)?

Answer 8

it was designed to encourage university students to join the fascist movement, offering benefits like sport facilities, career prospects, and exemption from military service

Question 9

what was the Littoriali event?

Answer 9

the Littoriali were student games where participants competed in exams related to creative rights and fascist ideology
prize-winners were earmarked for future success within the Fascist party

Question 10

what were the main activities of the ‘Opera Nazionale Balilla’ (ONB)?

Answer 10

activities included sports, gymnastics, physical exercise, summer camps, rallies, militaristic drills, and parades, with boys and girls participating in different activities suited to their gender roles

Question 11

how did the fascist youth movement affect children’s education?

Answer 11

the ONB integrated into the school system, promoting a biologically fit Italian race, with an emphasis on loyalty, militarism, and traditional gender roles for girls (e.g. domestic training)

Question 12

what impact did the Catholic Church have on the fascist youth movements?

Answer 12

the Church’s rival organisations faced opposition from the fascist youth movements, but after the Church’s movement was banned, membership of the ONB became compulsory, rapidly increasing to over 8.5 million

Question 13

why were university students considered less of a priority for indoctrination?

Answer 13

the govt believed that by the time students reached uni, they would’ve already been indoctrinated during their schooling years

Question 14

how did uni staff react to the fascist regime?

Answer 14

many professors did not want to join the PNF or take the oath of allegiance, but most complies due to pressure, with only 11 out of 1,250 refusing to join

Question 15

what did the Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro mean?

Answer 15

the National Afterwork Organisation

Question 16

when was the OND established?

Answer 16

1925

Question 17

why was it originallys et up?

Answer 17

as an agency responsible to the Ministry of National Economy but became part of he PNF from 1927

Question 18

what was the OND’s aim?

Answer 18

to win the masses over to fascism by becoming involved in their leisure time as well as their working lives

Question 19

what social and sporting opportunities did the OND provide for workers?

Answer 19

the OND provided bars, billiard halls, cycling groups, football teams, libraries, and radios.
it also offered plays, concerts, films and sporting activities

Question 20

what were some of the most popular aspects of the OND?

Answer 20

the subsidised holidays and excursions, where workers and their families could visit mountain retreats, beach resorts, and sporting events for little or no cost

Question 21

what kind of welfare services did the OND provide?

Answer 21

it acted as a welfare organisation, providing relief to workers in times of need, social insurance, and even food and clothing to poorer individuals

Question 22

how did the OND affect its membership numbers?

Answer 22

it increased dramatically, from 300,000 in 1926 to 2.4 million in 1935, and more than 4 million by 1939

Question 23

what were some of the activities offered by the OND?

Answer 23

activities included libraries, films, radio sets, excursions, holidays, theatre clubs, art exhibitions, sports, summer camps, and Dopolavoro clubhouses for local communities

Question 24

why did the OND avoid promoting fascist ideology directly?

Answer 24

it was designed to be ideologically free to attract a wide range of workers, as fascists believed that encouraging mass participation in social activities was more important for control than direct ideological indoctrination

Question 25

how many workers joined the OND?

Answer 25

many workers joined because of the wide range of social, cultural, and welfare services provided, without needing to commit to fascist ideology

Question 26

how did Mussolini view the OND's role?

Answer 26

he saw the OND as a tool to ensure mass participation in activities linked to fascist party, that this participation was more important for control than direct ideological indoctrination

Question 27

what degree of creative freedom did film directors have?

Answer 27

they had in theory a fair degree of creative freedom, as long as they did not criticise fascism and the regime, or make serious social or political commentary

Question 28

what was the origins of most films shown before WW2?

Answer 28

few overly fascist films were produced before WW2 and Hollywood or Italian films continued to be played as light entertainment or distraction

Question 29

what was the General Directorate for Cinema and when was it founded?

Answer 29

in 1934, the fascist regime created the DGC, which was under the administrative control of the ministry of Press and Propaganda, responsible for regulating the cinema and bringing all film in line with Fascist ideology and aesthetic

Question 30

what did the Ministry of Press and Propaganda turn into?

Answer 30

the Ministry of Popular Culture in 1935

Question 31

when did Italy start focus on making a lot of fascist films?

Answer 31

in 1938, after the Fascist regime took over the Cinecitta, Italy's Hollywood and the centre of Italian film industry

Question 32

give two examples of fascist films created after 1939

Answer 32

Luciano Serra, pilota (1938), which Mussolini's son Vittorio helped make and focused on Italian pilot in the Abyssinian war Augustu Genino's Siege of the Alcazar (1940), which was about the early fascists fighting the socialists in Spain

Question 33

what was the use of newsreels or documentaries before cinema showings?

Answer 33

films were preceded by newsreels or documentaries produced by the regime's film agency, LUCE (L'Unione Cinematografica Educativa), portraying current events as the Fascists wished, glorifying the regime and its successes

Question 34

how were sporting successes showed?

Answer 34

they featured frequently in newsreels and the Italian successes in the soccer World Cup of 1934 and in Los Angeles Olympics of 1932 were glorified in the newsreels of the day

Question 35

why were these newsreels effective?

Answer 35

anyone who went to the cinema had no choice bu to sit through these newsreels, although there was no guarantee that they would listen or absorb the messages being promoted

Question 36

what was the advantage of radio?

Answer 36

it did not require literacy and could be received in remote parts of the country if the govt made an effort to install it

Question 37

when were the first radio stations set up?

Answer 37

1924-5

Question 38

give a statistic to show the growing popularity of radio during the Fascist regime

Answer 38

by 1932 there were 300,000 registered radio sets and by 1938 there were over 1 million

Question 39

when was a special rural radio agency set up?

Answer 39

the ERR was set up in 1933 and led by the PNF secretary

Question 40

how was Italian radio use expanded during WW2?

Answer 40

Mussolini expanded radio and more than 2 million radio sets were installed in market places, schools, factories, and military facilities

Question 41

how was news broadcasts a good use for Fascist propaganda?

Answer 41

radio broadcasting was state controlled

Question 42

give an example of radio broadcasting for Fascist propaganda

Answer 42

Roberto Forges Davanzati's Chronicles of the Regime programme, which included interviews with many well-known members of the govt and the PNF

Question 43

how was Mussolini's speeches heard by the public?

Answer 43

they were broadcast live and were played via loudspeakers in public squares and buildings

Question 44

what new powers did prefects have under press laws?

Answer 44

they now had the ability to confiscate whole editions of any newspaper, journal or magazine that produced anti-Fascist material, and they could suspend publication, replace editors, and shut down offending newspapers completely

Question 45

which left-wing newspapers were banned?

Answer 45

Avanti!, Partito Popolare and L'Unita

Question 46

what was the effect of journalists having to join a fascist union that controlled access to jobs and promotion within the profession?

Answer 46

it enforced a form of self-censorship, as they had to join up with a fascist organisation and ensure their work was positive towards Mussolini otherwise they would lose their jobs

Question 47

what instructions were given from Mussolini's press officer?

Answer 47

fascist reports concerning the greatness of Mussolini were written by people working for the PNF press officer and then simply sent to newspapers so they could be printed, and journalists could not print stories on crime, suicides, or traffic accidents, as this would disturb the fascist image of Italy as a country with no social problems

Question 48

give examples of press freedom

Answer 48

his fascist newspaper Popolo d'Italia only had a circulation of 100,000 compared to 600,000 for the Corriele della Sera and the Vatican newspaper, Osservatore Romano, remained popular with a circulation of around 250,000

Question 49

by how much did Fascist newspapers account for in Italy?

Answer 49

they only accounted for 10% of the entire newspaper sales in Italy

Question 50

why did Mussolini leave this kind of press freedom?

Answer 50

he was more interested in controlling the press as opposd to banning newspapers

Question 51

how did the regime control independent newspapers?

Answer 51

these were allowed to exist but under strict guidance that was enforced in most cases by the newspaper's own editor who was fearful of the consequences if he did not follow the press office directives

Question 52

by how far was the fascist regime successful in press control, censorship, and propaganda?

Answer 52

they were considerable successful in controlling the image of Italian society, the PNF, and Mussolini that they wanted the public to see and it was extremely difficult for the Italian population to view any alternative narrative than the one presented to them by the fascists

Question 53

how was the cult of Il Duce spread?

Answer 53

this was an image propagated through posters, cinema newsreels and radio broadcasts that sought to portray Mussolini as a leader of immense ability leading Italy to greatness, clearly represented in the Fascist slogan 'Mussolini is always right' 30 million pictures of Mussolini in around 2,500 different poses were circulated throughout Italy

Question 54

how was Mussolini portrayed in terms of his personal qualities and image?

Answer 54

he was portrayed as a modern, dynamic leader, a brilliant sportsman (swimmer and aviator) and a physically storng leader he was often photographed shirtless, symbolising strength his image also emphasised being attractive to women and a traditional family man

Question 55

how was Mussolini represented as a lone leader?

Answer 55

he was depicted as being above his party and the nation, without distractions or human emotions he was seen as the supreme patriot and heit to Julius Caesar and Augustus, leading Italy to greatness

Question 56

what was the power of the cult of Il Duce?

Answer 56

it was the sustaining myth of Mussolini's regime. while the PNF and fascist ideology may not have been popular, Mussolini's personal image united Italians in support of the dictatorship

Question 57

what were the problems with the propaganda focusing on Mussolini?

Answer 57

his personal image was more popular than fascism, raising questions about whether fascism could survive without him as Mussolini aged, it became harder to maintain the image of a youthful, dynamic leader later, Mussolini became more inclined to believe in the cult himself, influencing his more radical policies post-1935

Question 58

what were the aims of using culture?

Answer 58

propaganda to enhance the authority of the regime to increase the external prestige of regime to create a new, modern Italian culture based on the traditions of past

Question 59

which organisation was set up when to spread Fascist culture to the masses?

Answer 59

the National Fascist Culture Institute in 1926

Question 60

what were the differing views among Fascist officials over the 'Fascist style'?

Answer 60

Mussolini favoured the Novecento movement, Farinacci questioned its validity and favoured 18th and 19th century arts, and Bottai argued fascism did not want a state art

Question 61

what were the two main artistic tendencies under Fascist regime?

Answer 61

neo-classists looked to ancient Rome for inspiration modernists favoured clean lines and geometric shapes, experimenting with more abstract styles

Question 62

to what extent did artists have artistic freedom?

Answer 62

the state allowed there to be a diversity in the art created, provided it didn't lead to opposition to the regime. it frequently portrayed sturdy rural or industrial workers, productive women and virile youths striving to make Italy a great nation

Question 63

how did the regime attempt to control art?

Answer 63

the govt tried to control art by promoting competitions at regional, national and international levels, artists were expected to join the Syndicate of Professionals and Artists profess loyalty to the regime, and there were approx. 50 art exhibitions a year to increase familiarity with art and celebrate the achievements of the regime

Question 64

how was architecture used?

Answer 64

wanted to use it to demonstrate fascist strength and dynamism, and Mussolini wanted to show the stability and power of his regime by constructing vast and imposing buildings esp. in Milan and Rome

Question 65

what were the differing styles of architecture?

Answer 65

neo-classifcal and modernist/futurist styles

Question 66

give examples of modernistic architecture

Answer 66

the Universal Exhibition of Rome, was the largest building project during the dictatorship and was an unfinished extension to Rome began in 1935 'Foro Mussolini' was a sports venue built between 1928-38, with a design based on ancient forums of imperial Rome

Question 67

how did Fascist architecture help promote the regime?

Answer 67

it helped promote the regime through futuristic designs, creating an image of a new Fascist utopia as great as the ancient Roman Empire

Question 68

what did musicians have to do?

Answer 68

they were required to join the Fascist Union of Musicians and were encouraged to develop 'cultural autarky' through rejecting foreign influences

Question 69

what did writers have to do?

Answer 69

they were required to join the relevant Fascist syndicate but as long as they did not create works that were hostile to the regime, they were largely left alone

Question 70

how did many writers/literacy intelligentsia view fascism?

Answer 70

the regime was not particularly successful in its attempts to create a fascist literary intelligentsia, as among the educated fascism was seen primarily as a vehicle for career advancement rather than intellectual inspiration and the Italian intelligentsia did not become intellectually engaged with the regime

Question 71

what were the levels of killings by fascist regime?

Answer 71

fascists killed approx. 2,000 political opponenets and the number of people killed by the fascist regime or its sympathisers was around 400 people

Question 72

what were the powers of local govt (through provincial prefects)?

Answer 72

in November 1926 a Public Security Decree gave the govt-appointed provincial prefects the power to place anyone perceived as a political threat under police supervision at the same time a Law for the Defence of the State introduced Special Tribunals to try anyone accused of political crimes

Question 73

how far did Mussolini's power rest upon repression?

Answer 73

although Mussolini did possess wide legal powers and repressive institutions which supported his power, other factors like propaganda and popular policies were more significant

Question 74

how did the fascist state deal with political opponents?

Answer 74

it used the police, militia, and secret police (the OVRA) to threaten, imprison, and punish political opponents many were forced into exile in foreign countries, and some were assassinated

Question 75

what was the Special Tribunal?

Answer 75

it was set up in November 1926 to judge those thought to be a dnger to the state and it met 720 times between 1927 and 1943, considering a total of 13,547 cases

Question 76

how many people were found guilty and sentenced to death by Special Tribunal?

Answer 76

5,155 were found guilty and 49 sentenced to death

Question 77

what was OVRA?

Answer 77

set up in 1927, it had a fearsome reputation which was deliberately promoted by the regime to increase Fascist power

Question 78

what were the powers of the OVRA?

Answer 78

arrest and hold suspects without a trial, search people and places, tap telephones and intercept the post

Question 79

what did OVRA do and how many members did it have?

Answer 79

with its 5,000 members, it spied on both fascists and non-fascists under the control of the Ministry of Interior, independent of the regular police authorities

Question 80

how effective was OVRA?

Answer 80

by 1939 OVRA had collected dossiers on 130,000 suspcts, though only 4,000 people were arrested and sent to prison

Question 81

how many people were sent to political prisons throughout regime and how many people were kept as political prisoners between 1922-43?

Answer 81

10,000 were sent to political prisons like Lipari and Lampedusa (islands) and approx. 5,000 people were kept as political prisoners

Question 82

how many people were sentenced to death by 1940?

Answer 82

only 10

Question 83

give an example of when Mussolini supported high-profile violent actions?

Answer 83

OVRA assassinated the prominent Italian anti-fascist Rosselli brothers in France in 1937

Question 84

how prevalent was antisemitism within the PNF?

Answer 84

it was not widespread figures like Farinacci were antisemitic, but leaders like Italo Balbo had clsoe ties to the Jewish community Mussolini himself had Jewish mistresses, and in 1938, 10,000 Jewish members were part of the PNF

Question 85

why did Mussolini introduce antisemitic legislation in 1938?

Answer 85

due to fears of Jewish disloyalty in case of war, Jewish resistance to fascism, and Jewish involvement in anti-fascist movements in Europes, such as in the Spanish Civil War and opposition to Italy's attack on Abyssinia

Question 86

what were some key antisemitic laws introduced in 1938?

Answer 86

July 1938: 'Manifesto of Racial Scientists' declared Jews not part of the Italian race August 1938: foreign-born Jews banned from state schools September 1938: all Jews banned from state schools and teaching October 1938: Jews excluded from PNF, fascist groups, and prohibited from owning large companies/estates November 1938: Jews banned from marrying non-Jews, excluded from military/banking, and foreign Jews expelled

Question 87

how were antisemitic laws inconsistently applied?

Answer 87

some exemptions were made for Jewish veterans of WW1, and many govt and Fascist officials did not enforce the laws strictly due to moral reasons or personal connections with Jews Mussolini's sons protected their Jewish friends

Question 88

what was Mussolini's decree in November 1943?

Answer 88

after returning to power in 1943 with Nazi support, Mussolini issued a decree to confiscate Jewish property and round up Jews for deportation to Nazi death camps as a result, 9,000 Italian Jews were sent to camps, with only 600 surviving