challenges to the liberal state Flashcards
LO: mutilated victory, occupation of Fiume, post-war economic crisis and social discontent, political reforms, growth of PSI and Catholic Party, result and impact of elections Nov. 1919
what was the Pact of Rome ?
Sonnino (Italian foreign minister) allowed a Congress of Oppressed Nationalities to meet in Rome. It declared a united and independent Yugoslavia was in the interests of Italy
when was it signed?
April 1918
what was the Italian govt’s involvement in it?
The Italian govt welcomed the pact but they did not sign up to it directly
what was its significance?
it was recognised that italy could need good relations with Yugoslavia after the war and it was agreed that even though Italy had to give up some territorial demands in relation to Yugoslavia, this wouldn’t necessarily mean it couldn’t seek other concessions in the Adriatic
what were the other peace treaties involving Italy ?
Treaty with Austria in Sept. 1919, Hungary in 1920, and Yugoslavia in 1920 (the Treaty of Rapallo)
what was the impact of these peace treaties?
Italian mainland extended by approximately 9,000 square miles. Italy’s frontier extended across the Alps and the historic enemy Austria-Hungary had been divided
what were the new Italian colonies?
Jarabub and Jubaland and some minor frontier concessions in Libya and Eritrea
what was the response to these colonial gains by many Italians?
they were left dissatisfied with what had been achieved through their participation in WW1
what were the territories that were promised to Italy under the Treaty of London?
South Tyrol
Trentino
Istria, inc. Trieste
Dalmatia
(minor) colonies
what did Italy receive at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919?
South Tyrol
Trentino
Istria, inc. Trieste
which other territory did the nationalists and Orlando believe they were entitled to?
Fiume
what was the peace treaty that most affected Italy?
Treaty of Saint-Germain, signed with Austria on 10 September 1919
how was Italy’s nationalist claims to Italia Irredenta met?
they were all met, as it gained Trentino, South Tyrol, and Istria.
Around 200,000 German-speaking Austrians now lived in land ruled by Italy, and she also gained 250,000 Slavs in the mixed territory of Istria
why was Italy’s victory at WW1 mutilated?
millions of Italians considered Italy had been cheated as they had not gained what they had been promised in the Treaty of London
why were some lands not given to Italy?
Partly due to Dalmatia now being claimed by the new Yugoslav state, which was justified on the grounds of self-determination
what was one of the great claims of the Fascist govt after the war?
that the govt mishandled the war and then ‘lost’ the peace
why did the Adriatic part of Fiume, a key demand in the post-war negotiations, become a part of Yugoslavia?
Britain and USA both felt Fiume should remain part of the newly founded nation of Yugoslavia, which would need access to the Adriatic, so the city became part of Yugoslavia
how strong was Italy’s claim to Fiume?
Not very:
- city had not been included in discussions leading up to signing of Treaty of London
- Sidney Sonnino only asked for Fiume to achieve Dalmatia, which he saw as more strategically important, despite not being Italian
- nationalists wanted Fiume because its 50% Italian speaking population meant that for them it was ‘Italian’
- for Wilson and other Allies, this was a demand too far and they firmly rejected Italy’s request
why did Gabrielle d’Annunzio lead an invasion and seizure of Fiume?
initially the negotiators were seen as heroes in Italy for making the demand, but this soon ended when they failed to achieve it. This failure led to the occupation of Fiume
when was the occupation of Fiume?
September 1919- December 1920
who was Gabrielle d’Annunzio?
he was a well-known Italian novelist, poet and flamboyant figure
what did he promote?
Italian expansion into territories that had a high proportion of Italian speakers and he advocated for Italian intervention
what was his ideological position?
he was a nationalist
what was his role in the army?
he volunteered aged 52 and gained national attention in August 1918 when he flew a plane across Vienna denouncing the Astro-Hungarian Empire
what was the main consequence of his occupation of Fiume?
it led to international outrage and made the Italian govt look weak
what was his role in fascist govt?
he was never directly involved and was marginalised under Mussolini’s regime
who were the types of people that made up his invasion?
nationalists, army officers, and a small number of industrialists
he led 2,000 former soldiers (many deserters or mutineers) known as arditi (shock troops) or ‘legionaries’
how was the takeover successful?
Allied troops withdrew from the area and did not resist the takeover
how long did it last?
15 months
what was the main features of the nationalist regime there?
extravagant and festive
how did d’Annunzio make laws in Fiume?
he established a revolutionary constitution and issues proclamations from his base
what was the agreement made between Italy and Yugoslavia in Nov. 1920?
Treaty of Rapallo declared that Fiume was to be an independent city
how was this agreement received in Italy
it was generally welcomed by Italy, which had largely tired of d’Annunzio’s antics in the city
how did the occupation end?
Giolitti (PM again from June 1920 to July 1921)’s new govt sent in Italian army and navy to remove d’Annunzio in an attempt to reassert authority.
After a naval bombardment, the ‘free state’ was quickly defeated and d’Annunzio and his supporters fled
what was the end of occupation known as and when was it?
December 1920 = Bloody Christmas
how was Giolitti’s govt viewed?
as some anti-patriotic and the occupation became a symbol of nationalist defiance
what did the occupation reveal?
that force could be used to achieve political aims
what was the contribution made by d’Annunzio’s actions?
contributed to growing support of Italian fascism in the early 1920s and his actions influenced Mussolini and the fascist movement in Italy
what was the impact of the occupation on how the liberal govt was viewed?
it showed the govt’s inadequacy as it took over a year to respond, and Italians could contrast d’Annunzio’s vigorous action to defend Italy’s interests with the government’s apparently inadequate performance of the peace conference
what did d’Annunzio say about the current political system?
that it was a ‘heap of filth which cannot even serve to manure the nation’s cabbages’
what did d’Annunzio think about Mussolini
he criticised him for his lukewarm support over Fiume, and told his followed not to join ‘thug fascism’
what happened to d’Annunzio?
in October 1922 he conveniently fell from a balcony, so he was out of action for sometime, and Mussolini gained power first, making d’Annunzio Italy’s ‘lost leader’
what was the impact of WW1 on both the national debt and businesses?
the national debt rose exponentially and businesses that had depended largely on military contracts struggled to survive
what was the impact on people from urban areas?
inflation had a huge impact on cost of living (index rose from 100 in 1914 to 264 in 1918)
value of real wages fell to only 64.6% of 1913 levels
many large companies went bankrupt due to the rapid return to a free market economy
unemployment rose and by Nov. 1919 2 million Italians were unemployed
what was the political significance of these problems?
many groups had been adversely affected by the war, and in search of solutions they became more willing to turn to the political extremes
what was the impact on the rural areas?
there was land seizures by returning soldiers
number of peasant owners of land increased to 3.5 million (profit from war)
poverty increased
farm labourers came under control of Labour Leagues
socialist-run local govts like Tuscany and Emilia Romagna supported labour by setting local wage rates and working conditions
landowners and tenant farmers felt threatened by militant peasants and socialist-influenced trade unionists
what does Biennio-Rosso mean and when was it?
Two Red Years
1919-20
what was the Biennio-Rosso?
refers to the period of political turmoil in Italy when left-wing socialist and communist organisations flourished
what was the impact of Biennio-Rosso?
it contributed to Mussolini’s rise to power because they caused chaos and fear, particularly in the middle class
how did the liberal govt respond to the left-wing movement in contrast to fascists?
the liberal govt had a conciliatory response to workers’ grievances, whilst fascists used violence
how can the increase in militancy among urban workers after 1918 be explained?
such economic problems, alongside promises of greater freedom made during the war, help to explain the increase in militancy
give evidence of strikes in industry and agriculture
in 1919 there were 1,663 strikes in industry and 208 in agriculture
the following year 1,881 strikes in industry and 189 in agriculture
what was the general strike in April 1920 and its impact due to the socialist movement?
there was a general strike in northern Italy and that same year the city of Turin saw the introduction of factory committees
what and when was the ‘occupation of the factories?
in September 1920 over 400,000 workers took over their factories
which workers’ organisations saw a growth in membership?
General Confederation of Labour (CGL, a radical socialist group)
Italian Confederation of Labour (CIL, a Catholic union)
Federterra (socialist agricultural union)
why were there food riots and rioting in June 1919?
they broke out spontaneously in June 1919 due to a sharp increase in food prices
granaries and shops were looted as rioters demanded a reduction in food prices
what did some socialists call for?
they called for a communist revolution and the overthrow of the liberal state, influenced by the Russian Revolution of November 1917
what were the concessions from govt?
employment reforms and welfare reforms such as:
- minimum wage
- 8-hour working day
- official recognition of factory grievance committees
- compulsory employment insurance and employment offices from October 1919
what were the reasons for discontent among industrialists?
fear of a loss of political power (social tensions due to these changes)
fear of a ‘red threat’ (resented the success of socialist parties in local elections)
sense of betrayal by Giolitti’s govt (felt like they were supporting those who were opposed to traditional elites and governing forces)
what were the economic difficulties that led to middle class and ‘petty bourgeoisie’ discontent?
- the self-employed didn’t have powerful trade unions to represent their interests politically
- inflation made their savings lose value and industrial workers gained economically at their expense
- extra tax pressure on middle classes
what was another reason in terms of professional posts that led to middle class and ‘petty bourgeoisie’ discontent?
there was resentment about increasing numbers of working class people being educated enough to fill professional posts, and the post-war increase in working women
what was the law that meant women were able to work in more areas of employment than before?
the Sacchi Law of 1919
what were the political reforms post-war (include who and when) and what were their aims?
universal suffrage introduced by Vittorio Orlando in December 1918 - meant to be a reward for soldiers who fought in WW1 (alot were disenfranchised)
proportional representation introduced by Nitti in 1919 - to weaken growing support for the more extreme political parties and boost the moderate socialists and please Catholics
what were the consequences of the political reforms?
they resulted in the emergence of two mass parties, the Socialist Party (PSI) and the Catholic Popolari Party (PPI)
who was Vittorio Orlando (key points)?
- liberal
- Giolitti’s ally
- PM from October 1917
- encouraged reorganisation of army
- resigned in 1919 after failing to acquire Fiume
- abandoned politics after murder of Matteotti and stopped supporting Mussolini
what were the origins of the PPI?
founded in Jauary 1919 an led by Sicilian priest Don Luigi Sturzo
he ackowledged it would be separate from the Church
what was PPI’s makeup?
coalition of Catholics who wanted to improve the living standards of Italian peasants
what was the view of PPI’s members?
it was split among those who were conservative and supported the role of the Church and those who focused more on social issues
what were PPI’s policies?
it supported various social reforms, inc. foundations of a welfare state
what was the PPI’s approach to co-operating with other political groups?
the unity of the Popolari was fragile.
they were reluctant to perform a significant role within govt
they were prepared to enter coalitions with liberals as long as they were granted political concessions
what was the PSI’s success in elections?
Italian socialists won elections in many town councils and thus controlled local taxes and services
what was the divisions within the socialist movement?
PSI
socialist trade unions
socialist councils
what was the weaknesses of the movement after WW1?
- no effective leader to unify movement
- lacked effective strategy to take and keep political power
- divisions and failed to implement meaningful reforms
what were the reasons for the socialists gaining support?
economic discontent, unemployment and rising inflation
what were the demands made/actions taken by socialists?
socialist unions were prepared to adopt violent methods to achieve their aims
they sought to control the supply of labour and employment
what was the impact of socialists’ actions?
although there was a lot of support towards PSI, it also encouraged many italians to support more extreme political parties like fascists
how well organised were the socialists?
their programme was uncompromising
they wanted a proletariat dictatorship and eventual withering of the state, lack of religion, and nationalisation of all land
industrial wing made up of Chambers of Labour and Socialist Leagues
PSI controlled many local councils, which were all internally divided and lacked an effective strategy
the socialists frightened many Italians, and when the war was over many returning soldiers felt bitter about the PSI
what strategies did the socialists adopt?
land occupations, use of violence by unions, agricultural unions wanted to control the supply of labour and employment, series of strikes in 1919-20
what were the election results in November 1919?
socialists 156 seats
popolari 100 seats
Giolittian liberals 91 seats
right-wing liberals 23 seats
how many deputies were from the ‘backward’ south?
162/239
what did liberal govt had to do to stay in power?
alliances with the northern catholics or socialists
what was the make-up of the govt formed?
the resulting liberal govt was weak and unstable
Giolitti formed a coalition with Popolari in 1920, but his anti-clerical past made his relationship with Sturzo tense and unstable
Giolitti also approached the socialists, which lost him among liberals and Catholic deputies
what were the key changes after the 1919 elections?
universal male suffrage
new system of PR
a new party Popolari representing Catholic views
what was the effect of these changes?
for the first time the Italian parliament might reflect the views of the whole of (male) Italy
what was the divisions within the Popolari
split between reformers and conservatives
what was the divisions within the socialists?
split between reformers and revolutionaries
what was the effect of the absence of agreement between the two mass parties?
the old liberal politicians remained in power, cobbling enough support in parlt to form 5 brief govts between 1918-22 through transformismo
what were the post-war divisions in Italy?
class, regional, political, interventionists vs neutralists, financial gainers vs losers
how may members did the socialist party have in 1920?
over 200,000 members
