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Concrete Flashcards

1
Q

Manufacture process of cement

A
  • begins w/ decomp of CaCO₃ @ ~900°C
  • leaves calcium oxide CaO + libreates gaseous carbon dioxide (calcination)
  • clincering process, CaO reacts @ high temp (1400-1500°C) w/ silica, alumina, ferrous oxide to form silicates, aluminates, ferrites of calcium which comprise the clincer
  • clincer ground/milled together w/ gypsum + other additives to produce cement
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2
Q

decomp of CaCO3

A

CaCo₃–> CaO + CO₂

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3
Q

concrete

A

construction material composed of crushed rock/gravel + sand bound together w/ a hardened paste of cement and water

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4
Q

basic materials of concrete

A
  1. cement
  2. aggregates
  3. water
  4. admixtures
  5. voids
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5
Q

portland cements

A
  • Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
  • Rapid Hardening Portland Cement (RHPC)
  • Sulphate Resistant Portland Cement (SRPC)
  • White Portland Cement (WPC)
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6
Q

Portland cement - raw materials in clinker

A
  • limestone
  • iron stone
  • sand
  • shale
  • clay
  • other
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7
Q

unsustainability of cement manufacturing

A
  • manif results in high levels of CO₂ output, third ranking producer of anthropogenic CO₂ in world
  • 1 tonne of cement prod 780kg of CO₂
  • 4-5% of total CO₂ emissions worldwide caused by cement prod
  • extraction + processing: landscape degradation
  • dust + noise pollution
  • energy consumption + vehicle pollution of transportation
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8
Q

anthropogenic

A

man-made

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9
Q

cement manufacture

A
  • limestone, shale, silica, iron oxides quarried from ground
  • rock materials run thru crusher that turns rock into smaller pieces
  • crushed limestone + Si + shale + iron oxides mixed together and run thru rotary kiln
  • rotary kiln continuously mixes ingredients + “calcines” limestone so that CO₂ is driven off, forming clinker
  • clinker ground to fine powder + mixed w/ gypsum (helps moderate how fast cement sets)
  • bagged for sale
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10
Q

alternative cementitious (cement-like) materials

A
  • blastfurnace slag cement (GGBS)
  • pulverised-fuel ash cement (PFA)
  • metakaolin
  • rice husk ash
  • silica fume
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11
Q

GGBS

A
  • by-prod of iron smelting, quenched slag forms granules
  • generally blended with OPC up to 70%
  • reduced early age strength + early heat of hydration
  • lower carbon footprint
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12
Q

how cements in Europe are classed

A

-based on perc of portland cement that has ben replaced/substituted

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13
Q

classes of cements in Europe

A

CEM I - OPC/RHPC (100% cement)

CEM II (65% cement)

CEM III (45% cement)

CEM IV (<45%)

CEM II-IV: OPC with limestone, PFA, or GGBS

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14
Q

when water is added to cement

A
  • each compound undergoes hydration + contributes to final concrete product
  • only calcium silicate contributes to strength
  • tricalcium silicate: early strength, reacts more rapidly
  • dicalcium silicate: late strenth
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15
Q

equation of hydration

A

Cement + H₂O -> Calcium Silicate Hydrate (C-S-H) + Ca(OH₂) + H₂O

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16
Q

cement compounds

A

Tricalcium Silicate C₃S

Dicalcium Silicate C₂S

Tricalcium aluminate C₃A

Tetracalcium aluminoferrite C₄AF

Gypsum

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17
Q

setting of cement and hardening of concrete

A
  • a process of crystallization
  • crystals form after certain length of time (initial set time), + interlock w/ each other
  • cement + water that has crystallized in this way encloses aggregate particles + produces dense material
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18
Q

heat effect on setting and hardening

A
  • speeds up setting + hardening of cement

- cold slows down + can even completely stop process

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19
Q

cement hydration

A
  • setting + hardening results from chem reaction between cement + water, not drying process
  • reaction exothermic + irreversible
  • heat produced: “Heat of Hydration”
  • usually workable up to 2 hours before it begins to set, then harden
  • strength gain initially rapid, becoming progressively less
  • strength gain continues indefinitely, provided moisture present (CURING)
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20
Q

cement at start of hydration vs at end

A
  1. hydration not yet occured, pores filled with water

2. hardening cement paste, majority of space filled with C-S-H

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21
Q

heat of hydration evolution stages

A 
stage 1
stage 2
stage 3
stage 4
stage 5
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22
Q

stage 1

A
  • initial dissolution

- hydrolysis of cement compounds occur rapidly w/ significant temp increase

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23
Q

stage 2

A
  • dormant period
  • evolution of heat slows down
  • conc in a plastic state which allows problem free transportation + placing
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24
Q

stage 3 + 4

A
  • concrete starts to harden

- heat evol increases due to hydration of tricalcium silicate

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25
Q

stage 5

A

-slow formation of hydrate products continues as long as water + unhydrated silicates present

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26
Q

cement hydration notes

A
  • when you add water to cement, solid content of mixture increasing due to hydration
  • cement particles suspended in water
  • hydration continues as long as water is present + there are still unhydrated compounds in cement paste
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27
Q

concrete strength gain with time graph

A

check slides 1 pg 25

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28
Q

aggregates

A
  • Gravels, crushed rock + sands that are mixed w/ cement + water to produce concrete.
  • generally make 50%-80% of concrete mix
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29
Q

coarse aggregates

A

(stone)

do not pass through a 5mm sieve

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30
Q

fine aggregates

A

(sand)

pass through 5mm sieve

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31
Q

use of aggregates

A
  • pack efficiently
  • reduce spaces
  • reduces cost
  • modify + improve properties (strength + drying shrinkage)
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32
Q

quality requirements of aggregates

A
  • durability: hard, adequate strength

- cleanliness: free from chem impurities, organic material + dust

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33
Q

aggregate types

A
  • normal density (most gravels + crushed rock)
  • lightweight (weak porous solids, good thermal properties)
  • high density (radioactive screening)
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34
Q

use of normal density aggregates

A

used for normal concrete projects

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35
Q

use of lightweight aggregates

A

insulation

lightweight concrete structures

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36
Q

use of high density aggregates

A

shielding against nuclear radiation

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37
Q

water - required qualities

A
  • free from impurities. cannot contain sugars, sulphates, chlorides
  • sea water must not be used for reinforced concrete
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38
Q

admixtures

A
  • small quantities of additives to conc mix to improve certain properties
  • excessive amounts can have adverse effects on concrete
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39
Q

types of admixtures

A
  • accelerators
  • retarding agents
  • water-repelling admixtures
  • water reducing admixtures (plasticisers)
  • air entraining admixtures
  • superplasticiser
  • self-compacting admixture
  • foamed concrete
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40
Q

accelerators

A
  • inc rate of strength gain at early stage
  • Calcium Chloride CaCl, but may corrode steel
  • does not inc final strength
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41
Q

retarding agents

A

-reduce rate of evol of heat

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42
Q

water-repelling admixtures

A
  • improve impermeability of concrete (basements, water retaining structures)
  • no substitute for sound concrete
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43
Q

water reducing admixtures (plasticisers)

A
  • reduces amount of water req for given workability

- calcium ligno-sulphate

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44
Q

air entraining admixtures

A
  • generate evenly dispersed air bubbles in mix

- improves durability against frost + marine environments

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45
Q

superplasticiser

A
  • high flowing concrete

- allows some water removal + thus higher strength

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46
Q

self-compacting admixture

A
  • high flowing concrete

- does not req compacting to get rid of trapped air

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47
Q

foamed concrete

A

high flowing conc w/ bubbles + without stone

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48
Q

voids (in order of largest to smallest)

A
  • entrapped air
  • entrained air
  • capillary pores
  • gel pores
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49
Q

why are retarding agents necessary

A
  • necessary for large concrete pours
  • transport for long distances
  • provide time for grooves, curves, other architectural features
  • avoid cold joints
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50
Q

cold joints

A

-plane of weakness in concrete caused by interruption/delay in concreting process

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51
Q

when cold joints occur

A

when first batch of conc has begun to set before next batch added, so two batches do not intermix

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52
Q

workability

A

ability of concrete to flow in a mold or formwork

perhaps through congested reinforcement, ability to be compacted to minimum volume

perhaps ability to perform satisfactorily in some transporting operation/forming process

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53
Q

fresh concrete, first 48 hours

A
  • important for performance of concrete structure

- controls long-term behaviour, strength, Young’s Modulus, creep, durability

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54
Q

factors affecting workability

A
  • water content: higher content higher workability (wb)
  • fineness of cement: finer cement, faster loss of wb
  • aggregate shape: more angular (crushed) more water demand
  • grading: uniform grading - better wb
  • admixtures
  • time: timing of hydration
  • temperature: higher temps lead to loss of wb
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55
Q

fresh concrete properties

A
  • workability
  • voids
  • segregation
  • bleeding
  • shrinkage
  • compaction + honeycombing
  • grout loss
  • curing
  • surface finishes
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56
Q

air voids

A

air voids when using air-entraining admixture

-should be sufficient air voids within mix to ensure sufficient freeze thaw resistance

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57
Q

removal of air from concrete

A

agitating

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58
Q

segregation

A

-Separation of constituents of conc mix caused by excessive handling/vibration/improper gradation of aggregates.

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59
Q

laitance

A

Coarse aggregates separate towards bottom + cement paste forms a scum on the top

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60
Q

reduce segregation

A
  • inc water content
  • reduce water-cement ratio
  • inc rate of hydration
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61
Q

dry segregation

A
  • not enough cement + water added

- pebbles/stones separate from mixture

62
Q

bleeding

A
  • water is lightest material, gravity forces it upwards
  • called bleeding
  • gets rid of excess water, helps strengthen
63
Q

water role

A
  • in open air: concrete dries out, shrinks, concrete v fragile @ this stage, causes cracking
  • water helps prevent cracking from this shrinking by keeping it moist
64
Q

causes of bleeding

A
  • too much water (high cement-water ratio)
  • less fiens in mix
  • poor grading of aggregates
  • overworking of concrete
65
Q

shrinkage

A

-cracking that occurs when concrete is still plastic

short term: top dries, middle moist, creates tension in top later, cracks

if bleed water replaces concrete lost, no cracking results

66
Q

causes of shrinkage

A

-moisture loss from surafece

-

67
Q

evaporation increased by

A
  • high surface temps
  • high wind speed
  • low humidity
68
Q

shrinkage minimised by

A
  • moist aggregates
  • cover concrete
  • erection of windbreaks + sunshades
  • add plastic fibres
69
Q

compaction

A

-under and over compaction leads to poor concrete

70
Q

honeycombing

A

occurs when voids left in concrete due to failure of mortar to effectively fill spaces among coarse aggregate particles.

71
Q

honeycombing cause

A

occurs due to lesser quantity of fine sand leading to harsh concrete mix.

72
Q

curing

A

-maintenance of satisfactory moisture content + temp in concrete for period of time immediately following placing + finishing so as to develop desired properties of concrete

73
Q

grout loss

A

-cement + water get through

leads to early erosion/corrosion

74
Q

curing: 2 types

A

1: keep moisture
2: stable temp

75
Q

curing: stable temp (thermal curing)

A
  • keeping it warm to prevent overnight freezing of water, (thermal curing)
  • it keeps its own heat generated by hydration of cement
76
Q

curing: putting plastic on top

A

-traps evaporating water due to bleeding

77
Q

curing: spraying curing compound advantages + disadvantages

A

advantage: alcohol based, keeps moist for days
disadvantage: bleeding has to get drop from top

78
Q

curing: surface finished

A
  • easy to create patterned concretes
  • plastic imprints are put on while fresh (using ret agent)
  • featured surfaces hide blemishes
79
Q

hardened concrete properties

A
  • strength development
  • Young’s modulus + poisson’s ratio
  • creep
  • drying shrinkage
  • thermal movement
  • durability
80
Q

strength development - what affects it

A
  • temp: heat speeds up strengthening
  • age: varies diff for each conc type
  • w/c ratio
  • compaction
  • curing

-can control 4 of it, and test 1 (w/c ratio)

81
Q

w/c ratio test

A
  • Ireland/UK: cube test
  • rest of EU: cylinder test
  • America: same cylinder tested sideways
82
Q

how cube strength is represented

A

eg. C28/35

28 - cylinder strength
35 - cube strength

83
Q

3-point bending

A

-axial failure, tensile failure, stronger in compression than tension

84
Q

3-point bending

A

-axial failure, tensile failure, stronger in compression than tension

85
Q

concrete breaking

A
  • brittle failure
  • after yield str, cracks form
  • propagates fast + breaks
  • concrete breaks suddenly after cracking if not reinforced
86
Q

strength variability: characteristic strength

A

below which not more than 5% of test results fall at 28 days old

87
Q

avg strength + target mean strength

A

actual avg strength > target mean strength = characteristic strength + 1.64 standard deviations

88
Q

repeatability

A

standard deviation of same material tested, by same equip, by same manifacturer

89
Q

Poisson’s ratio

A

For concrete Poisson’s ratio is taken as 0.15 - 0.2.

-explains why cubes fail in compression the way they do

90
Q

what creep depends on

A
  • humidity
  • cement cement content
  • w/c ratio
  • stress
91
Q

creep failure of concrete + creep recovery graph

A

check slides 3 pg 19,20

92
Q

drying shrinkage

A
  • loss of moisture thru evaporation
  • 50% of shrink between 1 month-1 year depending on mass
  • causes extensive cracking
93
Q

controlling shrinkage

A

-reduces moisture, cement, reinforcement, details or fibres

94
Q

opposite of shrinkage

A

swelling: material absorbs water

95
Q

what drying shrinkage depends on

A
  • humidity
  • temp of surrounding air
  • rate of air flow over surface
  • ratio of surface area to vol of conc
  • water & cement contents
  • curing
96
Q

thermal movement

A
  • Expansion + contraction on heating/cooling

- Can cause cracking if restrained, eg. due to heat of hydration or daily/seasonal temperature changes

97
Q

how to get expansion

A
  • If a bar of length L is heated by T°C,
  • expansion (e) given by LαT

α = coefficient of thermal expansion, varies between materials

98
Q

durability of concrete

A

is its resistance to weathering, chemical attack, abrasion,

frost and fire.

99
Q

permeability + how to improve it

A

-should be as low as possible
-improved by:
full compaction
proper curing
low w/c ratio

100
Q

evaporation/absorption

A
  • loss/gain of liqid from a surface

- depends on ambient temp, wind, sunshine, relative humidity, surface characteristics

101
Q

diffusion

A

-liquid/gas movement from a high conc to a low conc

102
Q

durability - deterioration

A

-loss of funciton over time

  • timber: wet/dry rot leading to strength loss
  • concrete: sulphate/acid attack
  • steel: formation of rust in presence of oxygen + water
  • reinforced concrete: corrosion, esp in sea areas
103
Q

concrete carbonation

A
  • Reinforcement is protected by highly alkaline pore water in hardened concrete
  • CO2 in air neutralises free lime
  • If reaction reaches the reinforcement corrosion will occur
  • v slow process dependent on diffusion
104
Q

what diffusion involves

A

a difference in concentration of a gas/liquid

105
Q

what permeability involves

A

involves a flow of a gas or liquid

106
Q

reinforcing steel and chloride attack

A

-Slow process dependent on surface absorption + diffusion inside concrete

  • attacks steel quickly if chloride ions permeate concrete cover
  • sources: sea water, de-icing salts
  • keep surface sorptivity low as possible thru compaction + curing + use low w/c ration
107
Q

durability: fire

A
  • timber: highly flammable, toxic fumes, chars on outside of thick members
  • steel: loses strength rapidly at high temps
  • plastic: flammable + highly toxic fumes
  • concrete: non-flammable but can spall at high temps
108
Q

reinforced concrete (RC)

A

-Combination of concrete + steel bars, acting compositely

-Produces strong, durable, versatile building material
-Features best properties of each
material

109
Q

properties of concrete

A

strength in tension: poor

in compression: good

in shear: fair

durability: good

fire resistance: good

110
Q

properties of steel

A

strength in tension: good

in compression: good, but slender bars buckle

in shear: good

durability: corrodes if unprotected

fire resistance: poor, rapid loss of strength at high temp

111
Q

why reinforce concrete

A
  • Concrete tends to fail brittle manner (suddenly, without warning – not acceptable for occupants)
  • Reinforcing steel takes high tensile loads, the concrete the compression
  • When it takes large enough load, yields + becomes plastic (stretches considerably under little increase in load
  • ductile material
112
Q

graphs of concrete and steel compression

A

slides 4 pg 7

113
Q

how regular concrete works

A
  • apply a load
  • bottom surface in tension at beam centre
  • top surface in compression
114
Q

how reinforced concrete works

A
  • if steel bars located near bottom face (where tension is), beam can take much higher load before failing
  • concrete resits tension on top, steel resists tension at bottom
115
Q

how it works: bond

A
  • steel + conc must act together to transfer tension in concrete into steel
  • bonding to round bars using cement paste (“gluing” to surface)
  • provide additional bond by having ribs in bars
116
Q

how bars work

A
  • not by bending with beam

- but by bonding to concrete + stretching as it goes into tension

117
Q

how it works: anchorage

A
  • Bending bars (into L or U shape) at end of span provides better anchorage (giving it a longer length over which to transfer tension)
  • if beam long, normal to use two reinforcement bars overlapped sufficiently, they act as one bar
118
Q

shear

A

-failure would probably occur due to diagonal cracking near supports (despite presence of ductile steel)
-known as shear failure – another form of brittle failure
-Need to provide vertical reinforcement to bridge cracks, known as shear links
-have to provide additional longitudinal steel to hold top
end of links in place; nominal size bars called “hangers”

119
Q

diagram of reinforcement

A

slides 4 pg 15

120
Q

under-reinforced beams

A

-if brought to failure:

  • If steel weaker than concrete, steel will yield + stretch significantly – a ductile failure w/ plenty of warning (through cracking on bottom surface)
  • Preferred design condition because of this warning
121
Q

over-reinforced beams

A

-if brought to failure:

  • If additional steel provided to make beam stronger, could lead to concrete becoming the weaker component
  • Beam fails suddenly by concrete failure in compression (before steel becomes plastic) – dangerous brittle failure
  • Code rules mitigate against this failure method
122
Q

reinforced columns

A

-Concrete section in compression but also
some moment – generates tension in part of the section
-Reinforcement provided to take tension + required to take compression
-Now links provided to restrain slender compression elements (vertical reinforcement) to prevent buckling.
-Spacing of links must be such as to prevent this

123
Q

pre-stressed concrete

A
  • concrete structures tend to be heavy
  • Inevitably cracks as steel takes up tensile load
  • deliberately pre-stress by compressing it to eliminate tension in bending
124
Q

way to pre-stress concrete

A

-by stretching the steel before concrete sets, then release when concrete hard

  • adds compressive force to the concrete
  • Increased compression in concrete requires higher concrete compressive strength
  • No cracking should occur as tension no longer exists under bending
  • Deflections smaller + more slender beams can be used
125
Q

2 methods of applying pre-stress to concrete member

A
  • pre-tensioning: used in factory situations

- post-tensioning: site use

126
Q

pre-tensioning

A

-Tendons usually straight
-Steel stressed prior to concrete setting
-When concrete achieved correct strength, steel
released from tensioning device, putting beam in
compression bc bond prevents it from returning to
original length
-release of the tendons transfers compressive force into concrete

=>eliminates tensile stresses under working loads

  • Some loss of pre-stress force is inevitable at transfer of load from tendons to concrete
  • some longer term losses due to relaxation of tendons over time, drop in temperature (after the heat of hydration), shrinkage + creep in concrete
127
Q

where pre-tensioning carried out

A

Usually carried out in factory conditions for precast
units
-Permanent stressing beds constructed
-Long-line production used – similar units produced at the same time

128
Q

equipment for pre-tensioning

A

-Tendons anchored to fixed anchor plate at one end of stressing bed + threaded through stop ends of each
individual unit
-Force is applied to tendons by a jack + the tendons are locked off using an anchor

129
Q

post-tensioning process

A

-Ducts placed in position prior to concrete pour to predetermined profile.
-Tendons lie inside ducts.
-Concrete cast in mould/ formwork + allowed to harden
-Bond needs to be prevented at this stage to
allow post-tensioning
-When concrete strong enough to take compressive loads, stress tendon + anchor off
-Preformed metal ducts cast into concrete
w/ specially made anchorages
-Need to ensure no concrete grout enters duct
-Ducts need to be accurately located to correct profile + securely anchored in position during concrete pour (would otherwise float)
-once concrete reached sufficient strength, tendons jacked against face of anchorage blocks
-Need to check extension of tendons as will be unable to see movement of the tendon in duct

130
Q

post-tensioning: notes

A
  • Effectiveness of pre-stressing force is a function of the
    force multiplied by the eccentricity
    -Can inc efficiency by increasing eccentricity or achieve same pre-stressing effect by applying larger force at given eccentricity
    -Curve in profile develops upward camber in concrete section when tendon is tensioned – cancels
    out some downward deflection due to beam acting under full working load
131
Q

post-tensioning and grout

A

-Ducts are often filled with grout after all tendons are
stressed + locked off
-ensures tendons not subject to corrosion + provides a bond between tendons and concrete
-provides factor of safety against rupture of system

132
Q

unbonded post-tensioning

A

-Unbonded post-tensioning requires tendons to be in
greased ducts to provide corrosion resistance
-Unbonded tendons can be re-stressed/replaced
-Create difficulties for demolition as tendons can “blow
out” explosively

133
Q

concrete

A
  • important to have reached correct strength at transfer
  • Accelerated hardening often used in pretensioning for example, using RHPC, accelerators or steam curing
  • Elastic deformation occurs under application of pre-compression
  • shortens the unit + reduces the stress in the tendon – needs to be accounted for in calculations
134
Q

concrete - prestressing losses

A
  • thermal movement
  • shrinkage
  • creep
135
Q

thermal movement

A
  • When concrete cools down after hydrating, length of element reduces + some prestressing forces in tendons is lost.
  • Concrete compression also reduces.
136
Q

shrinkage

A

-As the concrete dries out it reduces in length slightly + some of prestressing forces in tendons is lost.
-concrete compression also
reduces.

137
Q

creep

A

inelastic deformation due to sustained stress; causes reduction in prestress due to application of sustained compressive stress.

138
Q

pre-stressed concrete: advantages over RC

A
  • Lighter structures possible
  • Savings in foundations, cladding etc.
  • Less materials + labour required
  • Longer spans
  • In buildings, may be possible to increase number of storeys for same overall building height
  • Useful for containment vessels due to lack of cracking
139
Q

pre-stressed concrete: disadvantages over RC

A
  • Need higher quality materials
  • More complex technically
  • More expensive
  • Risk of sudden failure, especially if not lifted properly
  • Harder to re-cycle
140
Q

Explain, using 4 examples, how the choice of concrete constituents
affects its concrete cube compressive strength.

A
  • Cement content - more raises strength
  • Rapid hardening raises, GGBS lowers strength
  • Rounded aggt lower, crushed angular aggt higher strength
  • Larger aggt higher strength
  • Water – less implies stronger
  • Admixtures: Accelerator higher,Retarder lower strength; plasticiser lower w/c ratio, higher strength, air entrainer or foamer, more air lower strength
141
Q

Explain, using four examples, how the processes of manufacturing and
taking care of the cubes prior to testing affect its concrete cube
compressive strength.

A
  • Compact fully to remove entrapped air
  • Cure to keep hydration going over night
  • Do not leave exposed overnight
  • Strip carefully as cube still weak and vulnerable
  • Put in curing tank within 24 hours
  • Thermally cure to enhance strength
  • Dry surface before testing
  • Turn through 90° before testing
142
Q

Sketch a typical stress strain curve derived during a concrete cube
compression test for a high strength concrete, showing on the graph
typical peak strength values and Young’s modulus of elasticity values.
Show how we can ascertain from the graph that high strength concrete
is very brittle.

A

lecture notes

143
Q

Using a sketch as appropriate, show the typical pattern of failure of a
concrete cube under compression, explaining why the shape is as it is.

A

lecture notes

144
Q

On a single graph, sketch typical stress strain curves for concrete, steel
and timber (tested with the grain) when tested in compression, ensure
the differences in strength, stiffness and ductility/brittleness are evident
in your answer.

A

given in tutorial number 2

145
Q

Criticise the slump test as a means of measuring workability.

A
  • not accurate
  • results are not repeatable
  • does not measure many workability features such as cohesiveness, bleeding, finishability, etc.
  • result depends on the person doing the test.
146
Q

If one wished to increase the slump value without causing

segregation, how would one achieve this?

A

Use a plasticiser and reduce the water content.

147
Q

explain how:
strength of concrete
varies with time

A

graph in sample answers

continues increasing mores slowly with time provided water is present

148
Q

explain how:
water cement ratio of the concrete mix affects the 28
day compressive strength

A

graph in sample answers

drops dramatically w/ increasing water as no new hydration occurs but creates more caillary voids reducing strength

149
Q

explain how:
an accelerating admixture might affect
strength development over time.

A

graph in sample answers

increases early age strength but not later strength

150
Q

Describe the role of reinforcing bars in reinforced concrete beams,
addressing how tensile cracking, bond, and shear are all accounted for.

A

in 4th tutorial

151
Q

Highlight three key structural characteristics of Aluminium and relate them
back to the production and manufacturing processes and explain how these
influence the way that we use the material structurally.

A

Malleability – how material can be extruded through a
die to form intricate shapes, such as using them for detailed window frames or bicycle frames;

Ductility - to give warning of failure, such as for crowd barrier that can be inspected and replaced or to form aircraft wings with smooth shapes;

Flexibility, with low elastic modulus, for bicycle frames which deforms rather than brakes

Weight, so can be used for light speed bikes, or many parts of aircraft where weight is at a premium to fuel costs.

Mat (5 decks)

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