Concepts and Terms Unit 1

Question 1

Actor

Answer 1

An entity that is capable of taking meaningful action or effecting change at any one of the six levels of analysis. Actors range from us as individuals all the way up to the most powerful states and intergovernmental organizations.

Question 2

Appeasement

Answer 2

A political policy of conceding to aggression by another nation. The most famous example of appeasement relates to Chamberlain’s appeasement of Nazi Germany prior to WWII.

After WW1, Britain’s Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain allowed Hitler to expand Germany’s territory unchecked in hopes of avoiding another war. At the time it was popular as the British people wanted to avoid slaughter, avoid another world war and Britain and it’s allies were not in a position to fight.

Many Britons also sympathised with Germany, which they felt had been treated unfairly following its defeat in 1918.

But, despite his promise of ‘no more territorial demands in Europe’, Hitler was undeterred by appeasement. In March 1939, he violated the Munich Agreement by occupying the rest of Czechoslovakia. Six months later, in September 1939, Germany invaded Poland and Britain was at war.

Question 3

Authoritarian state

Answer 3

An authoritarian state is one in which political power is concentrated in an institution not accountable to the people of that state (e.g. North Korea or Saudi Arabia).

Question 4

Balance of Power

Answer 4

A condition in which no one state predominates over others, tending to create general equilibrium and curb the hegemonic ambitions of all states.

Question 5

Bilateral

Answer 5

Refers to the relations between two states. A bilateral agreement is an agreement between two states

Question 6

Bipolar world order

Answer 6

A global system where the power is concentrated around two nations. An example of this is US and Russia during the Cold War.

Question 7

Bush Doctrine

Answer 7

The doctrine, not always precisely formulated, that preemptive military action, possibly aimed at achieving regime change, should be taken against states thought to be threatening the USA through the development of weapons or of mass destruction and/or by harboring terrorists. This of course was enacted by George W. Bush.

This is the epitome of “if you’re not with us, then you’re against us”. The US chose to pursue a more unilateral approach, ditching multilateralism.

Question 8

Capitalism

Answer 8

The key features of capitalism as an economic system are that it is one in which: the profit motive is the overwhelming motivation for economic activity; property is privately owned; and a free market determines the supply and price of goods.

Question 9

Collective Security

Answer 9

The idea or practice of common defence, in which a number of states pledge themselves to defend each other, based on the principle of ‘all for one and one for all’. NATO is an example of this.

Question 10

Colonialism

Answer 10

The process of a state seeking to establish or maintain control over other territories or peoples. This is often with the aim of promoting an economic benefit to the colonising power. Examples of former colonial powers include Britain and France. The extent to which they are still colonial powers is a matter of debate.

Question 11

Communism

Answer 11

Communism is a political and economic doctrine that aims to replace private property and a profit-based economy with public ownership and communal control of the major means of production as well as the natural resources of the society. In essence, communism is essentially a form of socialism and the differences have been long debated.

Marx described communism at two levels:
1) A transitional system would be when workers take control of the government and pay everyone based on how much they work and how well they work

2) The fully realized form would be a society without social divide in which the production and distribution of goods would be based on the principle, “From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.”

Over time the classical theory of communism has been revised and argued to include the ethical aspects.

Question 12

Compellence

Answer 12

A tactic or strategy designed to force an adversary to make concessions against its will through war or the threat of aggression.

Question 13

Constitution

Answer 13

A set of fundamental principles or precedents that set out how a state should be governed. The US constitution, along with various amendments, is one of the best known examples of a written constitution. Not all constitutions are written (e.g. British constitution which is spread out through multiple legal documents).

Question 14

Constitutive Theory of State

Answer 14

A theory that states are only states because they are recognised as such by other states. This is opposed to the declarative theory of statehood.

Question 15

Constructivism

Answer 15

Constructivism is the theory that says learners construct knowledge rather than just passively take in information. As people experience the world and reflect upon those experiences, they build their own representations and incorporate new information into their pre-existing knowledge (schemas).

Question 16

Credibility

Answer 16

The willingness of countries to carry through with its use of power such as weapons or resources.

Question 17

Declarative Theory of Statehood

Answer 17

A theory that states are only states because they meet four criteria (State is considered as an entity in international because):
1) a defined territory;
2) a permanent population;
3) a government and
4) a capacity to enter into relations with other states.

This is opposed to the constitutive theory of statehood.

Question 18

Deterrence

Answer 18

Deterrence refers to the principle that a state can be discouraged or deterred from acting another state, usually due to the relative military strength of that state. A interesting contemporary case study is that of North Korea and nuclear deterrence.

Question 19

Democratic State

Answer 19

A democratic state is one in which power resides with the people (electorate) and is exercised by them through their elected agents. This is a form of indirect democracy. Theoretically, it is also applicable to direct democracy but, with the exception of referenda, this is rare in the modern global system.

In a direct democracy, the people would directly make legislations and policy where as in indirect would use representatives for legislative decisions

Question 20

Diplomacy

Answer 20

Diplomacy refers to the process by which states manage their international relations. This is almost always carried out by professional diplomats although there are notable exceptions, such as politically appointed ambassadors by the US in some circumstances.

Great example of soft power as it makes use of sensitive but effective means.

Diplomacy comprises spoken or written communication by representatives of states intended to influence events in the international system.

Question 21

Environmentalism

Answer 21

Environmentalism, political and ethical movement that seeks to improve and protect the quality of the natural environment through changes to environmentally harmful human activities; through the adoption of forms of political, economic, and social organization that are thought to be necessary for, or at least conducive to, the benign treatment of the environment by humans; and through a reassessment of humanity’s relationship with nature. In various ways, environmentalism claims that living things other than humans, and the natural environment as a whole, are deserving of consideration in reasoning about the morality of political, economic, and social policies.

Question 22

External Sovereignty

Answer 22

This concept contrasts with internal sovereignty. Internal sovereignty refers to the supreme authority of a state within its territory while external sovereignty means that other states acknowledge the state’s internal sovereignty.

Question 23

European Commission

Answer 23

The European Commission (EC) is one of the institutions of the European Union (EU). It is responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, upholding EU treaties and carrying out the day to day business of the union. The EC consists of 27 commissioners drawn from all EU member states.

Question 24

European Parliament

Answer 24

The European Parliament is one of the institutions of the EU. It is the primary legislative body in the EU whose members are directly elected by national electorates.

Question 25

European Union

Answer 25

An economic and political union of 27 countries in Europe, many of which also share a common currency.

The EU was created by the Maastricht Treaty, which entered into force on November 1, 1993. The treaty was designed to enhance European political and economic integration by creating a single currency (the euro), a unified foreign and security policy, and common citizenship rights and by advancing cooperation in the areas of immigration, asylum, and judicial affairs. The EU was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 2012, in recognition of the organization’s efforts to promote peace and democracy in Europe.`

Question 26

Executive

Answer 26

The branch of government responsible for putting policies and laws into practical effect. Not to be confused with the other two branches of government, the Judiciary and Legislature.

Question 27

Failed States

Answer 27

While there is no agreed definition of a failed state, we can start from the understanding that a failed state is one in which the government is no longer capable of meeting the basic responsibilities of a sovereign government. Thus, we might consider Syria and Somalia as failed states.

Question 28

Feminism

Answer 28

In simple terms, feminism can be regarded the advocacy of women’s rights on the basis of sexual equality.

Question 29

Fragile State

Answer 29

Whilst fragile state is a contested concept, the term can be seen to mean a low-income country characterized by weak state legitimacy and/or weak state capacity. The World Bank defines fragile states as:
(a) eligible for assistance (i.e., a grant) from the International
Development Association
(b) has had a UN peacekeeping mission in the last three years, and
(c) has received a ‘governance’ score of less than 3.2 (as per the Country Performance and Institutional Assessment (CPIA) index of The World Bank).

Question 30

Global Governance

Answer 30

The movement towards political cooperation amongst transnational actors in order to develop solutions to problems affecting more than one state or region. It is important to note that global governance does not refer a unified global government but may include institutions of global governance such as the World Bank and International Court of Justice.

Question 31

Globalization

Answer 31

A debated term, which can be defined as the increasing interaction of people and states through the increasing interaction of money, ideas and culture.

Question 32

Hegemon

Answer 32

A state that has dominance at either a regional or global level of analysis. Currently, the only global hegemon is the United States although this may change as China becomes more powerful. For further discussion, see work of John Mearsheimer.

Question 33

High Politics

Answer 33

All those aspects of politics and international relations related to the very survival of the state, namely security concerns.

Question 34

Humanitarian Intervention

Answer 34

This refers to military intervention in another sovereign state in order to end or prevent a humanitarian crisis such as starvation or genocide.

Question 35

Imperialism

Answer 35

The acquisition of territories by a kingdom, empire or state.

Question 36

Interdependence

Answer 36

This refers to the way in which states, organisations and even individuals are becoming increasingly important in terms of the effect they have on the lives of others. For example, the way in which the recent financial crisis began in the US subprime mortgage industry but spread across the global financial system is a good example of increased interdependence.

Subprime loans are loans that are given out to those who have a lower credit score. These loans usually have a high interest rate to compensate for the possibility of default due to the low credit score.

→ The subprime meltdown was the sharp increase in high-risk mortgages that went into default beginning in 2007.
→ The housing boom of the mid-2000s, along with low-interest rates, led many lenders to offer home loans to borrowers with poor credit.
→ When the real estate bubble burst, many borrowers were unable to make the payments on their subprime mortgages.
→ The subprime meltdown led to the financial crisis, the Great Recession, and a massive sell-off in the equity markets.

Question 37

Intergovernmental Organization

Answer 37

An IGO is an organization that is made up of different national governments. The United Nations and NATO are examples of IGOs.

Question 38

Internal Sovereignty

Answer 38

Internal sovereignty refers to the supreme authority of a state within its territory as opposed to external sovereignty

Question 39

Internationalism

Answer 39

A political principle that advocates greater cooperation between peoples and nations.

Question 40

Interstate War

Answer 40

A war between two or more states

Question 41

Intrastate War

Answer 41

A war within a state which is also known as a civil war

Question 42

Judiciary

Answer 42

The branch of government responsible for interpreting policies and laws and ruling on their legality or otherwise. Not to be confused with the other two branches of government, the executive and legislative.

The judiciary is represented by the courts and has the function of resolving conflicts related to laws.

Question 43

Jus Ad Bellum

Answer 43

Jus ad bellum refers to the conditions under which States may resort to war or to the use of armed force in general.

Principles central to jus ad bellum are right authority (war is just only if waged by a legitimate authority), right intention(the aim of war must not be to pursue narrowly defined national interests, but rather to re-establish a just peace), reasonable hope(wars must have a reasonable chance of success), proportionality(stipulates that the violence used in the war must be proportional to the attack suffered), and last resort(all non-violent options must be exhausted before the use of force can be justified).

Question 44

Jus In Bello

Answer 44

Conditions that govern just conduct in war

1) No individual can justly be attacked unless he has, through his own action, surrendered or lost his basic human rights. Civilians, on the other hand, have not forfeited these rights, and are never permissible targets of war. Houses, places of worship, and schools should be immune from attack as well.

2) Any harm to noncombatants must be a secondary result, indirect and unintentional. (Debatable as it bring the idea of collateral damage). Some just war theorists have added the further stipulation that the foreseeable threat posed to civilian lives be reduced as far as possible and every effort taken to avoid killing them.

3) It suggests that the injury caused should be proportional to the objective desired, and that the extent and violence of warfare must be tempered to minimize destruction and casualties. Central to proportionality is the notion that parties should oppose force with similar force, and “thwart the assailant’s purpose using the minimum force necessary to do so.” One may not kill the opponent if it is possible to achieve the desired end by only injuring him. In addition, “the evil produced by the war must not be greater than the good done or the evil averted by it.” Costs must not outweigh benefits.

4) Although soldiers do forfeit some of their rights when they assume combatant status, they do not forfeit them permanently or completely. Once a soldier has laid down his arms and surrendered, he assumes the status of a non-combatant and cannot be killed or attacked. His property must not be destroyed or seized, unless this is imperatively demanded by the necessities of war. In addition, it is forbidden to steal from prisoners of war or the sick and wounded, or to mutilate or steal from corpses. The wounded enemy are to be collected and cared for.

Question 45

Just Pos Bellum

Answer 45

From Just War Theory referring to the conditions relating to justice after the conclusion of a war and during the peacebuilding process.

Principles are:
1) A just termination of the war once its objectives have been largely met
2) Right intention, meaning no revenge
3) Working with a legitimate domestic authority that respects human rights
4) discrimination, meaning no collective punishment
5) proportionality (just as there must be restraint even in combat, there must be restraint in the goals on behalf of which the fighting is being done)

Question 46

League of Nations

Answer 46

Set up after WWI and widely regarded as the predecessor to the United Nations. Whilst not as effective as its founders intended, it was significant in that it was one of the first IGOs to truly promote multilateralism as a means of conflict avoidance/resolution.

Question 47

Legitimacy

Answer 47

Legitimacy is related to the concept of authority. However, where authority refers to the accepted power of an individual in a position, legitimacy refers to the legitimisation of power by the government.

Legitimacy is commonly defined in political science and sociology as the belief that a rule, institution, or leader has the right to govern.

Question 48

Legislative

Answer 48

The branch of government responsible for creating laws.

Question 49

Low Politics

Answer 49

As opposed to high politics, this refers to all aspects of politics not related to the very survival of the state. Like Transport Laws

Question 50

Mandate

Answer 50

The authority to carry out a particular course of action as given to a political party during an election by the electorate.

Question 51

Marxism

Answer 51

The political and economic theories originally developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that consider capitalism as exploitative and based on unequal class relations between the bourgeoisie (middle-high class) and proletariat (working class).

Question 52

Montevideo Convention (1933)

Answer 52

Conference at which the declarative theory of statehood was accepted as part of customary international law. The convention sets out the definition, rights and duties of statehood.

Definition of State
The state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications:
a. a permanent population;
b. a defined territory;
c. government; and
d. capacity to enter into relations with the other states

Question 53

Multilateral

Answer 53

Multilateral is a term that refers to relations between more than two states. Thus, a multilateral agreement is one that is made between three or more states. Equally, states that act multilaterally act along with at least two other states.

Question 54

Multinational Corporation

Answer 54

A multinational corporation is a business organisation that operates in more than one state. MNCs have been criticised for the undue amount of influence they are able to wield, particularly in poorer states.

For Example:
Nike issued a report confessing the company’s role in facilitating worker exploitation. It uncovered the exchange of sexual favours for jobs at factories in Indonesia. The company - which sponsors sports celebrities such as Michael Jordan and Tiger Woods - revealed that 30 per cent of the employees interviewed at Nike franchises in Indonesia had been abused verbally.

Question 55

Multipolar World Order

Answer 55

A global system in which power is concentrated around more than two nations (or poles).

Question 56

Nation

Answer 56

A community that shares common cultural and linguistic traits. Not be confused with nation-state, we might consider the Kurdish people of Syria, Iraq and Turkey to be a nation.

The nation does not govern a sovereign territory.

Question 57

Nation-State

Answer 57

A nation which inhabits a clearly defined territory and can be said to be one in which the cultural boundaries match the political boundaries. The development of the nation-state can be traced back to the Peace of Westphalia at the conclusion of the 30 Years War in Europe.

Question 58

Multination-State

Answer 58

A multi-state nation is when an ethnic group is a predominant group across multiple states. An example includes Koreans. Meanwhile, a stateless nation is when an ethnic group is spread across many states rather than containing a state of its own. An example includes the Kurds of the Middle East.

Question 59

National Interest

Answer 59

The interest of a nation as whole. Realists argue that states will always pursue their own national interest, challenging the rationale for cooperation and interdependence put forward by liberals.

Question 60

Nationalism

Answer 60

The political principle based on promoting the interests of a particular nation. As opposed to internationalism.

Question 61

Neoconservatism

Answer 61

Neoconservatives typically advocate the promotion of democracy and national interest in international affairs, including by means of military force and are known for espousing disdain for communism and for political radicalism.

Question 62

Non-governmental Organization

Answer 62

Non-Governmental Organisations are independent of government and seek to influence policy or achieve an aim through a combination of lobbying and direct action. Examples of NGOs include Amnesty International and the International Rescue Committee. NGOs can be domestic or international in focus.

Question 63

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

Answer 63

NATO is made up of 31 member states, all of whom are signatories to the North Atlantic Treaty (1949). It was made by US and Canada to ensure the security of the western European states against the Soviet Union. NATO is an organization based on the principle of collective self defence whereby an attack on one member is treated as an attack on all (Article 5). So far, the only time Article 5 has been triggered has been in response to the 9/11 attacks in the USA.

Question 64

Paris Peace Settlement

Answer 64

The meetings held between the victors of WWI held in order to set peace terms and reparations for the defeated states. The result is known as the Treaty of Versailles and many have argued the harshness of the terms contributed to start of WWII.

Question 65

Periphery

Answer 65

This is a term taken from the core/periphery model which argues that the global north is the economic core of the global system as opposed to the economic periphery made up of states from the global south. This model is regarded as outdated by some.

Periphery countries are those that exist on the outer edges of global trade. There could be many reasons for a country to be considered peripheral, such as a dysfunctional or inefficient government.

Question 66

Polarity

Answer 66

Polarity refers to the way in which power is distributed in global politics. We can distinguish between unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar international systems.

Question 67

Power

Answer 67

Power can be seen as the ability to effect change in the world and, rather than being viewed as a unitary or independent force, it is an aspect of relations among people functioning within a social organization.

Question 68

Power Politics

Answer 68

A form of international relations in which states protect their own interests by threatening others with aggression, whether political, economic or military.

Question 69

Prisoner’s Dilemma

Answer 69

The classic prisoner’s dilemma goes like this:

Two bank robbers, Elizabeth and Henry, have been arrested and are being interrogated in separate rooms.
The authorities have no other witnesses, and can only prove the case against them if they can convince at least one of the robbers to betray their accomplice and testify to the crime.
Each bank robber is faced with the choice to cooperate with their accomplice and remain silent or to defect from the gang and testify for the prosecution.
If they both co-operate and remain silent, then the authorities will only be able to convict them on a lesser charge resulting in one year in jail for each (1 year for Elizabeth + 1 year for Henry = 2 years total jail time).
If one testifies and the other does not, then the one who testifies will go free and the other will get five years (0 years for the one who defects + 5 for the one convicted = 5 years total).
However, if both testify against the other, each will get three years in jail for being partly responsible for the robbery (3 years for Elizabeth + 3 years for Henry = 6 years total jail time).

The respective penalties can be expressed visually as follows:

Possible Outcomes of Prisoner’s Dilemma
Outcome Henry Cooperates Henry Defects
Elizabeth Cooperates (1,1) (5,0)
Elizabeth Defects (0,5) (3,3)
Penalties for (Elizabeth, Henry)

In this case, each robber always has an incentive to defect, regardless of the choice the other makes. From Elizabeth’s point of view, if Henry remains silent, then Elizabeth can either co-operate with Henry and do a year in jail, or defect and go free. Obviously, she would be better off betraying Henry in this case. On the other hand, if Henry defects and testifies against Elizabeth, then her choice becomes either to remain silent and do five years or to talk and do three years in jail. Again, obviously, she would prefer to do the three years over five.

In both cases, whether Henry cooperates with Elizabeth or defects to the prosecution, Elizabeth will be better off if she defects and testifies. Now, since Henry faces the exact same set of choices he also will always be better off defecting as well.

The paradox of the prisoner’s dilemma is this: both robbers can minimize the total jail time that the two of them will do only if they both co-operate and stay silent (two years total), but the incentives that they each face separately will always drive them each to defect and end up doing the maximum total jail time between the two of them of six years total.

A prisoner’s dilemma is a situation where individual decision-makers always have an incentive to choose in a way that creates a less than optimal outcome for the individuals as a group.

Question 70

Radicalism

Answer 70

A political principle focusing on altering social structures through revolutionary means.

Question 71

Ratified

Answer 71

the action of signing or giving formal consent to a treaty, contract, or agreement, making it officially valid.

Question 72

Rational Actor

Answer 72

Rational actor describes the quality of most people at most times to aim towards maximising their own interests rather than acting against their own self-interest. Put simply, actors whether states or individuals, will act in a way that benefits their own interests. Thus, Kim Jong-un can be argued to be rational in promoting nuclear development in North Korea.

Question 73

Realpolitik

Answer 73

This is a German phrase that refers to politics and political decision making that is based on practical considerations rather than on a moral or ideological basis.

Question 74

Referendum

Answer 74

A referendum is a vote in which the entire electorate is invited to vote on a single question or issue. Referenda are used more frequently in some countries than others (e.g. Switzerland) An example of a recent referendum would be Brexit in the UK.

Question 75

Resolution

Answer 75

A resolution can either refer to the statement put forward for debate in a legislative body or, more commonly, a written motion adopted by that body. Thus, a UNSC resolution is a statement or course of action agreed by members of the UN Security Council.

Question 76

Responsible Sovereignity

Answer 76

The principle that states should not only protect their own people but should cooperate across borders to protect global resources and tackle transnational threats.

Question 77

Responsibility to Protect

Answer 77

R2P is a global commitment endorsed by all UN member states at the 2005 World Summit which is based on the idea that sovereignty involves a responsibility to protect all populations from mass atrocities and human rights violations. R2P is often used as a justification for humanitarian intervention in another state.

Question 78

Sanctions

Answer 78

Sanctions are actions taken by states, either unilaterally or in conjunction with others, against other states for political reasons. Sanctions can be classified as diplomatic, economic and military amongst others. A contemporary example of sanctions are those currently in place targeting North Korea.

Sanctions have become one of the most favored tools for governments to respond to foreign policy challenges.
Sanctions can include travel bans, asset freezes, arms embargoes, and trade restrictions.
The United States has more than two dozen sanctions regimes: some target specific countries such as Cuba and Iran, others are aimed at curbing activities including terrorism and drug trafficking.

An action that is taken or an order that is given to force a country to obey international laws by limiting or stopping trade with that country, by not allowing economic aid for that country, etc.

Question 79

Semi-Periphery

Answer 79

Semi-periphery refers to the industrializing countries situated between the core and periphery in the model advocated by world system theorists such as Wallerstein.

Question 80

Separation of Powers

Answer 80

The separation of powers is a model of state governance whereby government is divided into three branches - executive, legislature and judiciary - in order to provide a system of checks and balances and prevent the concentration of power solely with one branch of government. In reality, government in modern states is usually more complicated than this model suggests.

Question 81

Social Movement

Answer 81

Large, often informal, groupings of both individuals and organisations with the aim of carrying out, resisting or undoing social change. There is no agreed definition of what constitutes a social movement but Black Lives Matter and the Occupy movement are both good examples.

Question 82

Socialism

Answer 82

Socialism, social and economic doctrine that calls for public rather than private ownership or control of property and natural resources. According to the socialist view, individuals do not live or work in isolation but live in cooperation with one another. Furthermore, everything that people produce is in some sense a social product, and everyone who contributes to the production of a good is entitled to a share in it. Society as a whole, therefore, should own or at least control property for the benefit of all its members.

This fundamental conviction nevertheless leaves room for socialists to disagree among themselves with regard to two key points. The first concerns the extent and the kind of property that society should own or control. Some socialists have thought that almost everything except personal items such as clothing should be public property; this is true, for example, of the society envisioned by the English humanist Sir Thomas More in his Utopia (1516). Other socialists, however, have been willing to accept or even welcome private ownership of farms, shops, and other small or medium-sized businesses.

The second disagreement concerns the way in which society is to exercise its control of property and other resources. In this case the main camps consist of loosely defined groups of centralists and decentralists. On the centralist side are socialists who want to invest public control of property in some central authority, such as the state—or the state under the guidance of a political party, as was the case in the Soviet Union. Those in the decentralist camp believe that decisions about the use of public property and resources should be made at the local, or lowest-possible, level by the people who will be most directly affected by those decisions. This conflict has persisted throughout the history of socialism as a political movement.

Question 83

Sovereignty

Answer 83

The full right and power of a governing body over itself without interference from outside bodies. This concept underpins the Westphalian model of nation states but it can be argued - and is by liberal theorists - that true sovereignty is impossible to achieve in an increasingly globalised world system.

Question 84

State

Answer 84

An organised political entity with a permanent population, a well defined territory and a government.

Question 85

Stateless Nation

Answer 85

A community sharing cultural and/or linguistics traits that is not found within the boundaries of one nation-state. For example, Korea.

Question 86

Structural Power

Answer 86

Power as mainly related to the establishment of structures, or the control over structures, in international relations. Susan Strange defines structural power as the power “to decide how things shall be done, the power to shape frameworks within which states relate to each other, relate to people, or relate to corporate enterprises” .

The usage of structural power actually entails three different meanings, namely indirect institutional power (The ability or official authority to decide what is best for others.), unintentional power, and impersonal power (not involving feelings).

Question 87

Superpowers

Answer 87

States that have achieved a hegemonic position in one or more aspects of global politics. Many theorists argue that the US is currently the world’s only superpower. However, that is changing the the rise of countries like China

Question 88

Supranational

Answer 88

Refers to any quality, principle or organisation that transcends national boundaries or governments.

Question 89

Terrorism

Answer 89

The unlawful use of force, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political aims. It is worth noting that both the Reagan and Thatcher administrations in the US and UK considered the ANC (African National Congress whose president was Nelson Mandela) a terrorist organisation, yet Nelson Mandela was Honorary President of the UWC (United World Colleges) movement.

Question 90

Treaty

Answer 90

An agreement, under international law, entered into by actors in the global system, generally states and organisations.

Question 91

Treaty of Westphalia

Answer 91

The Treaty of Westphalia concluded the 30 Years War and is cited as the starting point for the development of the nation-state.

The peace conference to end the war opened in Münster and Osnabrück in December 1644. It involved no fewer than 194 states, from the biggest to the smallest, represented by 179 plenipotentiaries (A person who has full right to sign treaties on behalf of the state). There were thousands of ancillary diplomats and support staff, who had to be given housing, fed and watered, and they did themselves well for close to four years, despite famine in the country around.

The treaty gave the Swiss independence of Austria and the Netherlands independence of Spain. The German principalities secured their autonomy. Sweden gained territory and a payment in cash, Brandenburg and Bavaria made gains too, and France acquired most of Alsace-Lorraine. The prospect of a Roman Catholic reconquest of Europe vanished forever. Protestantism was in the world to stay.

In 1648, the Treaty of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) and the Eighty Years War (1568-1648). However, the main outcome of this peace treaty is much broader than ending two bloody wars. The Treaty of Westphalia is accepted as the beginning of modern international relations since it introduced the concepts of sovereignty, mediation, and diplomacy (Patton, 2019, p. 91). Besides this, the basis of international organisations and the first attempts to codify international law can be found in this treaty. Furthermore, the Treaty of Westphalia stands out for being the first secular Congress that gathered in Europe.

Question 92

Unilateralism

Answer 92

A state acting alone without reference to other states. Many states will attempt to avoid working unilaterally, if possible, in order to keep the international community on side. Thus, George W. Bush went to great lengths to build a ‘coalition of the willing’ before military action in Afghanistan and Iraq.

Question 93

Unipolar world Order

Answer 93

A global system in which power is concentrated around one nation (or pole). Many theorists argue that the current world order, with the US as global hegemon, is unipolar although this is a matter of debate as new countries start to emerge.

Question 94

United Nations

Answer 94

Developed as a replacement for the League of Nations, the UN is an intergovernmental organisation (IGO) with the aim of promoting international cooperation and to create, and maintain, international order. All undisputed independent nations (with the exception of Vatican City) are members of the UN and there are currently 193 full members. The Holy See (Church Jurisdiction of the Pope) and Palestine hold non-member observer status. The UN is the biggest and arguably most influential IGO globally.

Question 95

UN Security Council (UNSC)

Answer 95

One of the six principal organs of the UN, the UNSC is made up of 15 members. 10 states are elected on a rotating basis and the five permanent members (China, USA, UK, France and Russia) hold the power of veto over the decision making process. Russia having that power in the Ukraine War is causing a lot of debating

Question 96

UN General Assembly (UNGA)

Answer 96

The General Assembly is the primary deliberative organ of the UN, at which all member states are represented, and meets once a year in New York. It is the only UN organ at which all states are represented equally.