Comprehension of Literacy and Informational Texts Flashcards
Define literal comprehension, and describe some specific instructional strategies to promote literal comprehension of fictional texts.
Literal comprehension refers to understanding the written meaning of
a text. It involves a basic understanding of the text’s vocabulary, events,
main ideas, and other features. Literal comprehension is important
because it is the foundation upon which deeper levels of comprehension
are formed.
Answering literal comprehension questions using text evidence is one
strategy to support development of this skill. This can be done through
class discussions or written activities. Readers can be asked to identify
the setting of the story, main characters, sequence of events, or other
topics where the answers can be Found directly in the text. Readers
should be asked to provide text evidence for their answers, which might
involve marking the sentences where the answers are found. Graphic
organizers, such as story maps and problem/solution charts, call also
help students develop literal comprehension skills.
To scaffold the development of literal comprehension, the teacher can
begin by asking questions about a portion of the text immediately after it is read, using the same wording as the text. Over time, the wording can be varied and the teacher can wait for longer intervals before asking the questions.
Define inferential comprehension, and describe some specific instructional strategies to promote inferential comprehension of fictional texts.
Inferential comprehension is a deeper level of understanding than
literal comprehension. It requires inferring what the author meant. The
answers to inferential comprehension questions are not found directly
in the text. Readers must instead make inferences, draw conclusions,
determine points of view, and make other informed decisions based
upon the evidence provided in the text.
To develop inferential comprehension skills, readers can be asked to
make predictions or inferences and draw conclusions. This can be done
using class discussions, written activities, or graphic organizers. For
predictions, inferences, and conclusions, readers should be asked to
provide text evidence to support their choices. This may involve
marking parts of the text or recording relevant sentences. They should
then be encouraged to evaluate their predictions, inferences, and
conclusions as they continue reading. If new evidence conflicts with
their initial predictions, inferences, or conclusions, readers should be
encouraged to revise them as needed. Proficient readers self-monitor
their comprehension and continually revise their understanding as
additional evidence is gathered.
Define evaluative comprehension, and describe some specific instructional strategies to promote evaluative comprehension of fictional texts.
Evaluative comprehension is a deeper level of understanding than
literal comprehension and goes further than inferential comprehension.
It requires readers to make judgments and share opinions about what
they have read based upon evidence found in the text and prior
knowledge. For example, evaluative comprehension questions might ask
readers to consider if they would have handled an event in the text
differently or explain whether they agree or disagree with the author’s
point of view.
Because evaluative comprehension requires deeper thinking than literal
comprehension, it is helpful for teachers to frequently model their
thinking when responding to these types of questions. They can model
how to identify relevant information within the text and draw upon
prior experiences to form judgments about topics.
It is also helpful to provide readers with evaluative question stems they
can reference when reading independently. These question stems can
also be displayed on charts in the classroom.
Describe some specific instructional strategies to help learners retell fictional stories, and explain why retelling assists with comprehension.
There are specific steps teachers can take to focus readers’ attention on
key parts of stories to assist with retelling. Teachers can preview the
stories with students and point out the key events they should listen for
before they begin reading. During reading, they can pause and ask
students to summarize the key events they have heard in the stories so
far. After reading, teachers can lead students in shared retellings or ask
students to retell the stories independently.
Students can fill out graphic organizers or create flip books that describe
what happened in the beginning, middle, and end. They can also draw or
act out the main story events. Additionally, students can be given
sentence strips containing the main story events in a mixed-up order
and asked to sequence them. Story ropes can also be used, where
students tell story events in order as they move their hands along sets of
beads or knots on ropes.
Retelling is important for story comprehension because it requires
readers to identify and sequence the main story events. Readers must
also consider other story elements, such as characters, setting, and plot,
during retellings.
Explain how making predictions can support reading comprehension, and describe some specific instructional strategies to help readers make predictions.
When making predictions, readers gather evidence from the text and
pictures to make inferences. They sequence story events and make
connections between the text and prior experiences to predict what
might happen next. Continually making and revising predictions also
helps keep readers engaged. All of these activities support reading
comprehension.
To help learners make predictions before shared reading experiences,
teachers can conduct picture walks of texts. While showing the pictures,
teachers can provide brief overviews of the stories, asking students to
contribute their predictions about what each section might be about.
During reading, teachers can pause to ask students to summarize what
has happened so far and predict what might happen next. Teachers can
model using prior experiences, picture and context clues, and memories
of similar texts when making predictions.
Readers should be taught to evaluate their predictions to determine if
they were correct. They should also be taught to look for additional
information that might cause them to revise their original predictions.
Readers can fill Out charts listing their predictions, the evidence used to
support these predictions, and what actually happened in the texts.
Explain how comparing and contrasting can support reading comprehension, and describe some specific instructional strategies to help readers compare and contrast.
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Readers can compare and contrast many things when reading, such as
characters, settings, story events, multiple texts, and more. This
supports comprehension because readers must recall details and find
text evidence to compare and contrast. Comparing and contrasting also
requires higher-level thinking skills, can help readers organize
information, and can clarify confusion between two things.
Venn diagrams are a common way to help readers compare and contrast
information. Text evidence and prior knowledge can be used to identify
features that are the same and different between two things, and they
can then be listed in the appropriate sections of the diagram.
Students can also be taught to identify key words that signal whether
two things in texts are the same or different. Word such as similarly and
like signal that two things are the same, whereas words and phrases
such as although and on the other hand signal that two things are
different. A chart that lists these key words and phrases can be hung in
the classroom as a reminder for students to use when reading
Describe some genres of fiction, and list key characteristics of each.
Realistic fiction stories are about events that could happen in real life.
The characters and settings are realistic. Historical fiction stories also
contain realistic characters, settings, and events, but they take place in
the past—often during important times in history. Mysteries contain
crimes or puzzling events that the characters must solve. Fantasies
contain story elements that are unrealistic, such as talking animals or
magic. Science-fiction stories focus on imagining life with advanced
science or technological capabilities and other theorized situations, such
as the existence of extraterrestrial life.
Folktales are another type of fiction. They are popular stories that are
passed down from generation to generation, often by word of mouth.
Fairy tales are one type of folktale. They often contain magical events
and creatures, take place in enchanted places, have happy endings, and
have good characters battling evil characters. There are often multiple
versions of fairy tales. Cinderella is one example. Tall tales are folktales
that are portrayed as if they were realistic but include characters with
superhuman traits and exaggerated events. Paul Bunyan is an example
of a tall tale.
Explain why it is important for students to recognize different genres of fiction, and describe some specific instructional strategies to help readers identify these genres.
Understanding the characteristics of different genres and being able to
correctly classify texts by type is beneficial to readers for many reasons.
Knowledge of the typical text structures of each genre assists readers
with making predictions. For example, knowing that fairy tales typically
end with good overcoming evil can help readers predict how stories will
end. It also helps readers analyze texts deeply and incorporate
characteristics of the genres in their own writing.
There are different approaches that can be used to teach about genres.
One approach is to complete genre studies in which genres are explored
in detail one at a time. Teachers may begin by providing explicit
instruction on the characteristics of each genre and then give students
opportunities to analyze examples. Teachers may also begin by sharing
multiple texts of the same genre and asking students to identify common
characteristics on their own. Another approach is to present multiple
genres at once using a compare-and-contrast approach. No matter which
approach is used, readers should have opportunities to explore many
texts of each type of genre to develop an understanding of their common
characteristics and text structures.
Explain what it means to analyze and interpret author’s craft and structure, and describe how this promotes comprehension.
An author’s craft refers to an author’s style of writing. It includes all of
the choices an author makes when writing a text, such as word choice,
text structure, point of view, use of literary elements, message, tone, and
more. When focusing on an author’s craft, readers analyze all of these
choices and consider the effects they have on readers.
Analyzing and interpreting an author’s craft and structure helps readers
reach a deeper level of comprehension than surface comprehension. It
aids them in understanding how different elements of the text work
together to convey a certain meaning and tone. It helps them recognize
that authors make several deliberate choices throughout the writing
process about how to convey their messages most effectively, which will
assist readers with making choices in their own writing. Additionally, it
encourages active engagement with the text because readers are
continuously analyzing and interpreting while they read. Comparing and
contrasting an author’s craft using different texts and other authors can
also help readers make connections.
Define close reading, and explain some specific instructional strategies that can be used to promote close reading of fictional texts.
Close reading refers to reading and analyzing a text in a thoughtful
manner to develop a deep understanding of its meaning, theme, use of
language, and other elements. When close reading, readers first read
through the text to determine the general meaning. They then reread the
text to analyze the use of language and theme. They also make
connections between the text and themselves, other texts, or real-world
events and form evaluations. The goal of close reading is to develop
independent readers who are able to gather deep meaning from texts
with little or no scaffolding. Therefore, close reading activities do not
involve previewing, picture walks, or other prereading activities.
Not all texts are ideal for close reading activities. Teachers should
choose texts with deep meaning and multiple elements to discuss and
analyze. They should consider the complexity of vocabulary, syntax, and
meaning when choosing appropriate texts for close reading. Teachers
should also consider the complexity of text features and structures.
Teachers can model how to reread texts and analyze different elements
each time. They can guide students in this process by asking questions
that require increasingly higher-level thinking skills after each reading
of the text.
Describe some common elements of poetry, and explain some instructional strategies that can be used to help students recognize these elements.
Discussing and analyzing poetry is a common part of literacy instruction.
As part of this instruction, teachers can help students learn to recognize
common elements in poetry and use the appropriate terminology to
describe them.
There are several elements of poetry. A verse is a single line of poetry.
Verses can be grouped together to form stanzas. The rhythm in a poem
is developed from patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables. Meter
refers to a poem’s rhythmic structure form stanzas. The rhythm in a
poem is developed from patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables.
Meter refers to a poem’s rhythmic structure. Some poems incorporate
rhyme, which occurs when words end with the same sounds. Rhymes
are often found at the ends of verses. Poetry can also use other literary
elements, such as alliteration, similes, and metaphors.
Students can learn about elements of poetry by exploring different types
of poems. They can be asked what they like or dislike about each poem,
and these observations can be used to introduce the elements that are
used. Students can also compare and contrast different types of poems to
see how the elements can be used in different ways. While discussing
these observations, teachers can introduce the correct terminology and
provide additional examples to explain how the elements are utilized by different poets.
Describe some strategies to help students develop an appreciation of poetry.
There are many ways teachers can make learning about poetry fun and
engaging for students. Early childhood and elementary students can be
introduced to poetry during read-alouds and shared reading
experiences. They can be encouraged to participate by clapping, making
hand motions, and joining in the reading. As students get older, they can
participate by highlighting and annotating poems and presenting them
aloud to others.
Students can also be encouraged to explore different types of poetry to
find styles that appeal to them. Free verse, sonnets, limericks, haikus,
villanelles, and sestinas are just some examples of the many types of
poetry. Students can also be encouraged to experiment with writing
their own examples of different types of poetry.
Additionally, teachers can design poetry challenges for students. For
example, students can be given magnetic words or print media that can
be cut apart. Students can then explore rearranging the words into
verses and stanzas to create different types of poems—seeing how the
rhythm, meter, and other elements change. Students can also explore
poetic elements in their favorite songs.
Explain why the ability to synthesize is important, and describe some specific instructional strategies to teach readers to synthesize information from multiple texts.
Synthesis is the ability to gather information from multiple sources and
combine it to make meaning. It is important because it requires readers
to think critically about which parts of texts hold key information.
Synthesis also requires readers to summarize and put ideas into their
own words rather than repeat the texts verbatim. All of these skills
assist with comprehension. Synthesis is also important when readers
need to gather information about topics from multiple sources. The
sources may differ in format and viewpoint, and readers must be able to
find and combine the important points from each.
To teach students to synthesize, teachers can model tracking their
thinking throughout the reading of a text and explain how it changes as
new information is gathered. They can use phrases such as, “I used to
think but now I think. My thinking changed because .“ Text
evidence can be cited to explain the changes.
Readers can also be given graphic organizers to fill out as they read,
recording key points in their own words. After compiling the key points,
students can explain the main ideas they learned from the texts and how
their thinking changed as they read.
Describe strategies to encourage students to locate and use evidence from nonfiction texts to support opinions, predictions, inferences, and conclusions.
Students can use T-charts while reading nonfiction texts. On the left side,
they can record opinions, predictions, inferences, and similar thoughts
made while reading. On the right side of the T-chart, students can record
the text evidence used to support these thoughts.
Students can also complete scavenger hunts to find text evidence.
Teachers can ask students broad questions that require higher-level
thinking skills and instruct them to search nonfiction texts to find the
answers. Information in the texts that are used to answer the questions
can be highlighted or recorded on graphic organizers.
Teachers can also model this process for students. They can begin
shared reading experiences by identifying what questions they want to
answer by reading the texts. They can then model stopping when they
reach evidence that answers the questions and making annotations as
they go. Possible annotations include strong evidence presented by the
author and additional questions that have arisen.
Describe some specific instructional strategies to promote close reading of nonfiction texts.
Close reading activities are designed to help students deeply analyze
texts. In all close reading activities, students begin reading without first
completing any pre-reading activities. They reread the text multiple
times, analyzing different layers each time.
The first time that students read the text, they can be encouraged to
determine the overall main idea and supporting details. The second time
they read the text, they can be encouraged to analyze the author’s craft
and the text structure. This might include determining which text
structure the author used, identifying the key vocabulary words and
their meanings, locating nonfiction text features, and establishing the
author’s purpose for writing. The third time that students read, they can
be encouraged to evaluate the text, draw conclusions, and make
connections to other texts, personal experiences, or real-world events.
Teachers can model this process for students during shared reading
experiences. They can also provide students with graphic organizers to
help them record information during each reading. Additionally, they
can encourage students to highlight or make notes in the text to label
key information.
Describe the role that reading fluency plays in the comprehension of nonfiction texts.
Fluency is important in comprehending any type of text. When readers
are able to recognize words quickly and accurately, their working
memories are available to focus on comprehension. Additionally, their
thinking is not interrupted by stopping frequently to decode words.
Nonfiction texts present some special considerations for readers
because they can utilize many types of structures. They also may contain
several content-specific vocabulary words. Readers who are unfamiliar
with these text structures and words may have difficulty locating key
information and predicting what will come next, impeding
comprehension.
Therefore, it is important to expose readers of all ages to a variety of text
genres and structures. When practicing fluency passages, a combination
of fiction and nonfiction texts should be included. Teachers should also
model reading nonfiction texts so students will recognize what fluent
reading sounds like.
Explain how writing activities can be used to promote comprehension of nonfiction texts.
Writing can assist students with comprehension of nonfiction texts in
many ways. Students often i-ead nonfiction texts to learn new
information or figure out how to accomplish tasks. They can create lists
of questions they would like to have answered by the texts and record
their answers as they i-ead. They can also add additional questions that
are generated by reading the texts.
Readers can take notes to record the main ideas and supporting details
of nonfiction texts. There are many note-taking formats that can be used,
such as outlining. Readers can also write text summaries or record the
main concepts on semantic maps.
Additionally, there are many written response activities that can be used
to encourage the use of higher-level thinking skills. Readers can write
evaluations, compare and contrast essays, alternate endings,
recommendations, and other similar responses.
Explain how comprehension strategies can be applied to digital texts.
Digital literacy includes the ability to make meaning from digital texts.
Because the use of digital texts is now commonplace, teachers should give
students opportunities to interact with both digital and print-based texts
frequently.
Readers need to develop the ability to search efficiently. This includes
generating lists of questions they want to have answered before they begin
searching. It also includes selecting relevant search key words. Once search
results are displayed, readers need to be able to scan the options and identify
the links most likely to be relevant to their needs.
Digital texts are often nonlinear and contain multiple hyperlinks, so readers
need the ability to break down the texts and locate key information. They can
be taught to use note-taking strategies. This may involve using digital tools,
like highlighting and annotation tools, or using graphic organizers.
Readers also need to develop the ability to identify author bias in digital
sources. They should be encouraged to verify the sources and the validity of
authors’ claims.
Digital communications vary in formality. Readers should develop the ability
to identify the main points in formal texts, like research articles, and
informal texts, like blog posts.
Explain how building students’ academic language promotes comprehension, and describe some specific instructional strategies that can be used to develop academic language.
Academic language is language used in textbooks, class discussions,
tests, and other school-related situations. It includes both vocabulary
and syntax that differs from social language, which is less formal and
structured.
Understanding the vocabulary of academic language is vital to
understanding the authors’ messages. If readers do not know the
meanings of several key words, they will not understand the meanings
of the texts and will be unable to analyze them deeply. Understanding
academic syntax is also important because it helps students break down
complex sentence structure to locate key information.
Students need frequent exposure to academic language and
opportunities to use it across all content areas. For example, rather than
asking students how texts are arranged, teachers can ask them to
describe the text structures. Using these terms builds familiarity over
time. Additionally, teachers can provide partial scripts that students can
use to incorporate academic language when making presentations. To
help students see the differences between social and academic language,
teachers can also help students translate texts from one type to the
other.
Explain the importance of recognizing main ideas and details, and describe some specific instructional strategies to help readers identify them.
The ability to recognize the main ideas and supporting details of texts
assists with comprehension. Main ideas and supporting details help
readers identify what the texts are covering and determine what
message an author is trying to send.
Understanding paragraph structure can help readers locate the main
idea and supporting details. Readers can be taught that the main idea is
typically located in either the first oi- last sentence of the paragraph.
Readers can be encouraged to locate the main idea and mark it and then
locate all supporting details and mark them in a different way. Main
ideas and details can also be written on webs or other graphic
organizers to help readers comprehend what they have read. Scaffolding
can be provided when readers are first learning to complete these
graphic organizers and then gradually withdrawn.
Pre-reading activities, such as discussing the title and previewing the
pictures, can also help readers form initial thoughts about the main idea
of a text. They can revise their initial thoughts as they read.
Describe the SQ3R reading strategy, and explain its benefits.
SQ3R is a strategy used to help students comprehend textbooks. The S
stands for survey. In this step, students preview the text and note
features like headings, graphs, and charts. They use this information to
predict what the text is about. In the Q or question step, students reread
the headings and convert them into questions. They then predict the
answers to these questions. The first R stands for reading. In this step,
students read the text and attempt to answer the questions they listed,
They may also make annotations to note important points or additional
questions. The second R stands for recall, and this step involves
summarizing each section of the text immediately after it is read. The
last R stands for review. Students attempt to answer their original
questions without using the text. If they are unable to answer any
questions from mummy, they review the text and their notes for
assistance.
The SQ3R strategy has several benefits. By surveying the text, students
activate prior knowledge and set purposes for reading. Listing questions
helps focus students’ attention during reading. Annotating helps
students analyze and make meaning from the text. Summarizing and
reviewing help students remember key information.
Describe some common types of informational texts.
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Literary nonfiction texts contain true information about topics but are
presented using structures similar to fictional texts.
They often include
clear beginnings and endings and contain literary elements such as
figurative language and imagery. Biographies, memoirs, and travel
writing are examples of literary nonfiction.
Expository texts are written to explain things using facts. They are
structured differently than literary nonfiction texts.
They often contain
headings, tables of contents, glossaries, charts, graphs, and similar
features. These text structures help readers navigate expository texts
and locate specific information quickly. A science book explaining the
water cycle is an example of an expository text.
Persuasive texts are written to influence readers. They contain
evidence to support the authors’ claims. An advertisement urging
readers to vote for a specific candidate is an example of a persuasive
text.
Procedural texts provide step-by-step directions for how to complete
tasks. A manual describing how to complete office tasks using specific
software is an example of a procedural text.
Describe some specific instructional strategies to teach readers to identify different types of informational texts.
Readers can look for specific features to identify types of informational
texts. These features can be explicitly taught using example texts, and
charts outlining each type of informational text and its features can be
displayed in the classrooms.
To identify literary nonfiction texts, readers can look for accurate and
factual texts that are written using text structures commonly used in
fiction. Although true, these texts read more like stories, with clear
beginnings and endings. Literary elements such as figurative language
and symbolism may also be included.
To identify expository texts, readers can look for common expository
text structures, including tables of contents, headings, sidebars,
glossaries, charts, and other similar features. Readers should also be
encouraged to check that the texts are factual because some fictional
texts may contain these text features as well.
To identify persuasive texts, readers can look for key phrases that signal
opinions. These phrases include I believe,
you should, and in my opinion.
Readers can also look for details provided by the authors to support
their viewpoints.
To identify procedural texts, readers can look for clues that indicate
sequence. This might include numbered steps or key words like first,
next, and finally.
Describe some common purposes of nonfiction texts.
One purpose of nonfiction texts is to persuade. In this type of text,
authors try to convince readers to adopt their points of view using
supporting statements. An article written by a doctor urging parents to
limit their children’s soda consumption is an example of a persuasive
text,
Another purpose is to compare and contrast two things. An essay
comparing and contrasting the forms of government in two different
countries is an example of this type.
Other nonfiction texts are written to inform. These texts describe and
explain topics using facts. A nonfiction book about characteristics of
reptiles is an example of a text written to inform.
Some nonfiction texts are written to instruct. These texts explain how to
do something. A text about how to change a tire is an example of this
type.
Other nonfiction texts are written to narrate real-world events. These
texts convey real information in entertaining and/or engaging ways. A
personal narrative describing a funny event that occurred on a family
vacation is an example of a text written for this purpose.
Explain the importance of adjusting reading strategies when reading different types of texts and reading for different purposes.
It is important for students to self-monitor their reading and adjust their
use of strategies depending upon the situation. This will help them focus
their attention on key information. It will also ensure that they are
comprehending the text and meeting their expected purposes for
reading.
When students are reading fiction, they typically read from beginning to
end rather than skipping around. This helps them understand the plot
and correctly sequence story events. When reading nonfiction texts to
answer specific questions, readers may utilize text features like the table
of contents to jump to specific sections. This helps readers locate the
desired information quickly.
When students are reading for entertainment, they may read the text at
a faster i’ate than when they are reading to analyze specific literary
elements or answer comprehension questions. Slowing the reading rate
or rereading passages may allow foi’ deeper interaction with the text.
Describe some common features of expository texts.
Expository texts often contain some common features. These features
help readers locate and organize key information, and they also provide
additional information about the content of the text.
The table of contents and index help readers know what information is
presented in the text and on which pages to find certain topics. Titles
and headings are used to separate content into sections of related
information. Enlarged and/or bolded print is often used to draw
attention to these titles and headings. Important vocabulary words are
often highlighted or written in bold print to catch readers’ attention. A
glossary or set of sidebars is often included to provide definitions for
these vocabulary words. Photographs or illustrations are used to convey
infoi-mation visually, and captions are used to explain their content.
Charts, graphs, and tables are frequently used to present relevant data.
Maps are also included to provide additional information about places
discussed in the text.
Describe some specific instructional strategies to help readers locate and identify features of expository texts.
There are many instructional strategies that can be used to help readers
locate and identify features of expository texts. Leading students in
feature walks is one common strategy. Using this strategy, teachers
share informational and expository texts with students, previewing each
section of the texts together. They point out each of the text’s features,
such as the titles, headings, table of contents, captions, and charts, and
discuss the purposes of each. When reading the texts out loud, they
model how to use the features to locate and malce sense of key
in formation.
To help readers locate and use these text features independently, charts
listing the features and their functions can be posted in classrooms.
Students can also be given blank charts they can use to record text
features found while reading independently. Additionally, students can
be given comprehension questions that require the use of text features
to answer.
Describe some common nonfiction text structures.
Some nonfiction texts use a compare-and-contrast structure. In this
type of structure, both similarities and differences between two or more
topics are explained. Sometimes the author presents each topic
separately and then includes a discussion of similarities and differences.
Other times, the author weaves back and forth between the two topics,
comparing and contrasting different features along the way.
Cause and effect is another nonfiction text structure. In this structure,
the author describes an event and provides reasons why it happened.
Another nonfiction text structure is chronological order. An author
who retells the details of an event or period of time in the order that
they happened is using this text structure.
In the problem/solution text structure, a problem is introduced by the
author. Possible solutions to the problem are then discussed.
A description or list structure can also be used. In this type of structure,
a topic is introduced. Descriptive details about the topic are then listed.
Explain some purposes for reading.
One purpose of reading is for entertainment, which is known as
aesthetic reading. Sometimes readers select texts because they look
interesting to read, and they read them just for fun. Selecting a fairy tale
from the library for silent reading time and choosing a bedtime story are
examples of times students read for entertainment.
Additionally, sometimes people read for information. This is known as
efferent reading. It occurs when readers select nonfiction texts to learn
something new. This might include learning new facts about a topic or
learning the steps needed to accomplish a task. Selecting a book about
whales while studying ocean life is an example of reading for
information. Reading a recipe to prepare dinner is also an example of
reading for information.
Reading to learn opinions is another purpose for reading. This type of
reading occurs when people are trying to make decisions about things
and look to others for advice. Reading online reviews before purchasing
a product is an example of reading for opinions.
Describe how recognizing the author’s purpose can assist with comprehension.
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Recognizing the author’s purpose can assist with comprehension in
multiple ways. First, it can offer the readers clues about the text
structures and features they are likely to encounter. If readers recognize
that the author is writing to inform, they will know to look for features
of informational texts, such as headings and content-specific vocabulary
words. If readers recognize that the author is writing to entertain, they
will know to pay attention to character traits, plot development, and
other features of entertaining texts.
Additionally, knowing the author’s purpose can help the reader evaluate
the text more effectively. If readers recognize that the author is trying to
persuade them, they will know to think critically about any claims that
the author makes rather than accepting them at face value.
Knowing the author’s purpose can also assist readers with determining
if texts will meet their needs. For example, students may need to gather
factual background information for a science experiment they are
completing. They may preview a text and recognize that it is written for
entertainment. They may then decide that the text is not suited to meet
their needs in this circumstance.
Describe some specific instructional strategies to teach readers to recognize author’s purpose.
The author’s purpose may be stated either explicitly or implicitly in a
text. Readers can be taught to recognize text structures and features that
help identify the author’s purpose. Texts that are written to entertain
often contain interesting characters and engaging plots. They may
contain entertaining phrases and humor, and illustrations may be
present.
Texts written to persuade usually contain evidence to support the
author’s points of view. This may include statistics, facts, and/or
personal opinions. Readers can be asked if the authors appear to be for
or against something to determine if texts are written to persuade.
Texts written to inform often include facts, which may be stated using
text, charts, graphs, or other features. These texts may contain captioned
photographs to provide additional information about the topics.
Content-specific vocabulary words are often present. Readers can be
asked if the authors appear to be trying to teach them about something
to determine if texts are written for this purpose.
It is also important for readers to recognize that authors may have
multiple purposes for writing. Readers may recognize text structures
and features characteristic of two or more purposes within one text.
Describe common fictional story elements.
Fictional texts contain characters. There are both primary characters,
who are central to the conflicts and resolutions of the stories, and
secondary characters, who play smaller roles. The settings of the
stories are another feature. The settings include both the times in
history and the geographical locations where the stories occur. Fictional
stories also contain problems or conflicts. The conflicts are usually
introduced early in the stories to hook readers and encourage them to
continue reading. The plots contain the main events of the stories, when
the characters work to resolve the problems. The solutions contain the
resolutions to the problems, which typically occur toward the ends of
the stories. Fictional texts also typically contain themes, which are the
underlying messages the authors are trying to convey to readers.
It is important for readers to understand that not all fictional texts
contain every element. However, recognizing the common features will
assist readers with making predictions and comprehending the texts.
Describe some specific instructional strategies to teach students to identify fictional story elements.
A common way for teachers to introduce students to fictional story
elements is modeling their thinking during shared reading experiences.
For example, teachers may pause their reading when evidence is
provided about the story’s settings. The teachers may explain what they
have gathered about the settings and show students which textual clues
they used to make these determinations.
Graphic organizers, including story maps, are commonly used tools that
help students locate and record story elements. These story maps
typically ask students to locate the characters, settings, problems,
events, and solutions in stories. Foldables or flip books can also be used
to record these elements. These elements can be recorded using a
combination of pictures and text depending on the ages and needs of the
students. Students can also fill out these graphic organizers as
prewriting activities when outlining their own stories.
Teachers should ask guiding questions to focus students’ attention on
story elements before reading. For example, they can ask students to
listen for the problem in the story before they begin reading.
Differentiate among different types of characters found in fictional stories.
There are several common types of characters found in fictional stories.
However, not all fictional stories contain all types of characters.
Protagonists are the main characters in fictional stories that readers
can relate to and want to succeed. Protagonists can be complex
characters with both positive and negative traits. Although readers
empathize with protagonists, these characters do not always
demonstrate admirable behavior.
Antagonists are characters who stand in the way of protagonists
accomplishing their goals. Antagonists are not necessarily bad
characters and can also have both positive and negative traits.
Flat characters do not change over time. Their actions and personalities
are consistent throughout the stories. They are sometimes known as
static characters.
Dynamic characters change over time, usually as a result of
experiencing the events in the narrative. Readers can identify changes in
these characters as the story progresses.
Dynamic characters change over time, usually as a result of experiencing
the events in the stories. Readers can identify changes in these characters as the stories progress.
Describe the process of analyzing character development, and explain how teachers can assist readers with this process.
Authors of fictional texts present a variety of information about their
characters. They describe the characters’ physical characteristics,
personality traits, hobbies, dreams and goals, and approaches to solving
problems. After reading the stories, readers get to know the characters
and develop the ability to predict how the characters might react to
different types of situations. They also identify the roles that the
characters play in the stories, such as being the protagonists or
antagonists. Additionally, they determine whether or not any characters
have changed as the stories progressed, and they identify reasons for
these changes. All of these steps are part of analyzing character
development.
Students can be asked to discuss character traits and complete character
maps using text evidence from the stories. They can be asked to predict
how characters would likely react in other situations, based upon their
actions in the stories. Students can also be asked to describe how
characters have changed from the beginnings of the stories to the ends,
using text clues for support. They can compare and contrast characters
from different texts or the same characters during different periods of
time.
Explain the role that the setting plays in a story, and describe some specific instructional strategies to help readers identify a story’s setting.
Setting plays an important role in a story. It describes both the
geographical location where the story takes place and the time in history
when it occurs. A well-described setting also has the power to set the
mood for the story. It can help readers visualize the story’s events and
imagine that they are present. This can assist readers with
comprehension and increase engagement with the text.
To recognize setting, readers can be asked to identify both where and
when the story takes place as well as to locate key words within the
story that signal the answers to these questions. To explore setting more
deeply, readers can be asked to identify how the story evokes their five
senses. Using a graphic organizer, they can explore what the characters
see, hear, taste, smell, and feel in the story. They can discuss how the use
of these details helps readers visualize the setting, and they can be
encouraged to use similar details in their own writing.
Teachers can also find examples of mentor texts with detailed settings.
Students can explore the ways that the authors describe the settings and
discuss how these details affect readers.
Differentiate among five common types of figurative language, and provide examples of each.
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Similes are one common type of figurative language used to compare
two things using the terms like or as; for example, the child grew as fast
as a weed.
Metaphors are another common type of figurative language used to
compare two things. Unlike similes, metaphors do not use the terms like
or as. They simply state that one thing is another; for example, the star
was a glistening diamond.
Personification is a type of figurative language that gives human
characteristics to nonhuman things, such as animals, objects in nature,
or ideas; for example, the creek danced across the prairie.
Hyperbole is a type of figurative language that uses exaggeration for
effect. The exaggeration is so excessive that it is not intended to be taken
literally; for example, if I don’t eat now, I will starve to death.
Symbolism is another type of figurative language. In symbolism, a
writer uses a physical object as a representation of something other than
its literal meaning. The symbol often represents something abstract,
such as a feeling or idea; for example, diverging physical paths in a text
can represent two people making different life choices.
Describe some specific instructional strategies that can be used to help students recognize and interpret figurative language, and explain why this is important.
Some types of figurative language can be identified by recognizing key
words. For example, students can be taught to recognize the words like
and as in examples of similes. Students can be taught to recognize sound
words, such as buzz, in examples of onomatopoeia. Charts displaying
these key words can be displayed in the classroom.
Figurative language can also be explicitly taught, with teachers
explaining each type and providing examples. Mentor texts can be used
to provide examples of each type of figurative language, and students
can be encouraged to locate additional examples on their own. When
examples are identified, students can analyze the messages the authors
are trying to convey through the use of figurative language.
Authors use figurative language to make their writing more descriptive
and interesting. Because phrases containing figurative language cannot
be literally translated, readers must have adequate background
knowledge and/or use context clues to determine their meanings. The
ability to recognize and interpret figurative language ensures that
readers understand the authors’ intended messages and are able to
comprehend the depth of the story beyond the literal, surface meanings
of the phrases.
Define allusion, and describe some specific instructional strategies to help readers recognize it.
When authors use allusions, they refer to well-known people or events
familiar to readers without describing them explicitly. For example, a
character being warned to avoid opening Pandora’s box is an example of
an allusion. It refers to a commonly known story in Greek mythology,
and readers are expected to know the meaning of the statement without
any further explanation. Biblical, mythological, historical, and literary
allusions are four common types. Allusions are commonly found in
similes and metaphors.
To help readers recognize allusions, students can be asked to find
examples of allusions in texts and discuss their types and meanings.
Additionally, they can explore and evaluate the effects that allusions
have on the meanings and tones of stories. Students can also he taught
strategies for researching the meaning of unknown allusions they
encounter while reading independently.
Define reading comprehension, and explain its importance in developing proficient readers.
A basic definition of reading comprehension is understanding what
has been read. However, reading comprehension is quite complex. It
involves both taking meaning from the text and creating meaning by
integrating the text with prior knowledge. It is an active process that
requires the use of multiple skills and strategies, such as decoding,
fluency, understanding word meanings, predicting, inferring, and more.
It involves different levels of understanding, including comprehending
both the literal meanings of the words and the unstated themes and
implications of the text. Comprehension is one of the main goals of
reading instruction.
Comprehension is essential to developing proficient readers. If readers
are able to decode the words but cannot comprehend the messages, they
won’t make any meaning from the texts and will become easily
frustrated. Because comprehension is an active process, it is also
important for developing engaged readers who enjoy reading for a
variety of purposes.
Describe some strategies to boost reading comprehension in English language learners (ELLS) and struggling readers.
It is helpful to build background knowledge before introducing new texts to
English language learners (ELL5) and struggling readers. Readers can then
draw upon this background knowledge to make meaning from the new texts.
After assessing what students already know about the topics, background
knowledge can be developed using other texts, charts, graphs, photographs,
videos, discussions, and additional methods.
ELLs and struggling readers can benefit from previewing new texts before
reading them independently. This may include picture walks or receiving
text outlines that identify the main ideas covered in each section.
Pre-teaching vocabulary can also help ELLs and struggling readers
comprehend new texts. Teachers can introduce the vocabulary words and
use photos or real objects to help explain their meanings. The vocabulary
words can be frequently incorporated into class discussions to familiarize
students with them.
Additionally, graphic organizers can be used to help ELLs and struggling
readers identify and organize key parts of texts that assist with
comprehension. To offer scaffolding, partially completed graphic organizers
and/or sentence stems can be provided initially, and support can be
gradually withdrawn over time.
Describe some strategies to boost reading comprehension in proficient readers.
Proficient readers can be encouraged to comprehend at the inferential
and evaluative levels in addition to the literal level. They can analyze
texts deeply and make inferences, draw conclusions, and form
evaluations. They can also be encouraged to complete activities that
require higher-level thinking skills. Rather than listing the main
characters, for example, proficient readers can be asked to retell the
stories from each character’s point of view or evaluate the choices the
characters made.
To challenge proficient readers and encourage them to be enthusiastic
about reading, they can also be given choices about book selection.
Teachers can guide students in expanding their text selections to include
different topics and genres but allow them to make their own selections.
Teachers can also encourage students to choose texts that are
appropriately challenging. Proficient readers can benefit from
ownership in reading-related activities. Teachers can create menus of
challenging questions or projects that readers can choose from based on
their interests.
Describe the benefits of having students engage in collaborative discussions about print and digital texts using text evidence to support points.
Engaging in collaborative discussions can have several benefits for
readers. It allows them to learn from other people’s experiences and
perspectives, which may differ from their own. Readers may hear
additional evidence that strengthens their own initial understandings
and conclusions. Conversely, they may hear evidence that challenges
their initial thoughts and requires them to make revisions. Readers also
have to support their points with text evidence to explain their thoughts
to classmates. Locating and analyzing text evidence can assist with
comprehension.
Discussing texts with others also has broader social benefits. It gives
students opportunities to be active and social learners. Sharing ideas
and collaborating helps build a community of learners who are able to
communicate and respect different points of view. It also allows
students to experience different social roles within the group and
develop conflict resolution skills.
Describe some different methods of structuring collaborative discussions about print and digital texts.
Literature circles are one way to structure collaborative discussions
about print. Literature circles consist of small groups of students who
lead discussions about shared texts, which may or may not have been
self-selected. Students collaboratively analyze the texts, discussing
topics such as character development and theme. In some classrooms,
guiding questions are provided by the teachers, whereas discussion
questions are student-generated in others. Sometimes students are
assigned roles within the group, such as summarizer and discussion
leader.
Other times, there may he whole-class collaborative discussions. These
types of discussions may occur when the whole class is completing an
author study, for example, and are comparing and contrasting the events
of different texts. These discussions are typically teacher-led.
There may also be small-group, teacher-led, collaborative discussions
about teacher-selected texts. For example, discussion time may be
included during guided reading groups.
Describe how culture influences reading comprehension.
Culture affects the ways people view and interact with the world around
them. As a result, readers of different cultural backgrounds may
comprehend the same texts differently. Readers rely on prior knowledge
and existing schemata to make sense of what was read. Texts that are
culturally familiar and related to readers’ existing cultural schemata are
more easily comprehended than those that are unfamiliar. When reading
culturally familiar topics, readers are better able to make predictions,
inferences, and conclusions based on existing schemata.
Therefore, it is important for teachers to activate both students’ content
knowledge and cultural knowledge prior to reading. For example,
students may read a text describing a birthday celebration. The teacher
can activate students’ knowledge about how birthdays are celebrated in
different cultures.
Research has indicated that cultural differences in syntactic complexity
are less likely to affect comprehension.
Describe the reciprocal teaching strategy, and explain how it can be used in reading instruction.
Reciprocal teaching is a strategy designed to assist students with reading comprehension. In reciprocal teaching, students and teachers
share the responsibilities of leading small-group discussions about texts.
Teachers initially take the lead and model using four main
comprehension strategies, including generating questions, summarizing,
clarifying, and predicting. They gradually share more responsibility with
students, who eventually take over leading the groups in applying these
strategies to analyze texts.
Reciprocal teaching has several benefits. It requires students to be
actively engaged in the reading process, as they must understand and
apply the reading strategies to guide their classmates. It encourages the
use of higher-level reading strategies that can then be applied to other
texts. It also encourages discussion and collaboration among class
members. Additionally, reciprocal teaching can help build students’
confidence in their abilities to independently read and analyze
challenging texts.
Define inferring, and explain why it is important for reading comprehension. Also describe some specific instructional strategies that can be used to teach readers to make inferences.
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Authors sometimes provide clues in their writing rather than stating things
explicitly. When this occurs, readers must make inferences or draw
conclusions based on facts, prior knowledge, or text evidence rather than
explicit statements. For example, an author might state that a character
marched off and slammed the door. Although the author did not state it
directly, readers may infer that the character is angry based on his actions.
Making inferences is important for comprehension because much of the
meaning in a text can be stated indirectly. If readers comprehend only direct
statements, they may miss out on major themes or events in the story.
Because prior knowledge can be used to make inferences, it is helpful for
teachers to activate students’ prior knowledge before reading through
previewing and discussing what is known about the topic. Providing
students with frequent opportunities to read varied texts can also build prior
knowledge that will assist with inferring.
Teachers can also show pictures to students and ask what inferences they
can make based upon picture clues. Additionally, teachers can model
thinking aloud while reading, discussing what inferences they are making
and what prior knowledge, facts, or text clues they are using as evidence.
Explain why drawing conclusions is important for reading comprehension. Also describe some specific instructional strategies that can be used to teach readers to draw conclusions.
Drawing conclusions is important for reading comprehension because it
helps readers understand important events or concepts in a text that are
not directly stated. Drawing conclusions about an author’s purpose for
writing can also help readers better evaluate the text because they will
be aware of potential bias.
To help readers learn to draw conclusions, teachers can provide
students with several supporting details about common topics and ask
what conclusions they can draw. For example, they could describe a
house with balloons, streamers, presents, and a cake in the kitchen,
leading to a conclusion that it is somebody’s birthday. A graphic
organizer can be used to organize this information, with the conclusion
in the middle and the supporting details branching off from this
conclusion. This process can then be repeated using details found in
texts. This will show readers how they can use prior knowledge and text
evidence to form conclusions when they read independently.
Define metacognition, and explain its role in reading comprehension. Also describe some metacognitive strategies that proficient readers use.
Metacognition is when readers think about their own thinking.
Proficient readers continuously self-monitor their own reading. They
ensure that they are making meaning from the text. If things do not
make sense, they use strategies to self-correct the issues. Metacognitive
strategies are important for reading comprehension because they
ensure that readers are actively engaged while reading and that they
understand what they have read. Modeling these strategies by thinking
aloud is an important way to help students learn and apply these
strategies in their independent reading.
Metacognitive strategies before reading include previewing the text,
making predictions, and setting a purpose for reading. Metacognitive
strategies during reading include visualizing, making connections,
rereading to clarify confusion, and asking self-monitoring questions.
Readers also utilize text features to locate and make sense of key
information. Metacognitive strategies after reading include
summarizing, drawing conclusions, and determining if any unanswered
questions remain that need additional clarification.
Describe some activities teachers can do before, during, and after reading to promote reading comprehension in students.
Before reading, teachers can set the purposes for reading and activate
students’ prior knowledge by making connections to what they already
know. They can preview the texts and important vocabulary words and
encourage students to make predictions.
During reading, teachers can model thinking aloud to demonstrate how
they monitor their own understanding. They can check and revise
predictions, make inferences, and form connections. They can provide
students with guiding questions or graphic organizers to use as they
read independently to encourage the same reading behaviors.
After reading, teachers can model summarizing, drawing conclusions,
and evaluating the texts. They can also discuss how their thinking
changed as they read and were presented with new evidence. They can
encourage students to use the same strategies after reading
independently by setting tip literature circles, creating written response
activities, and designing other reading response projects.
Explain the three types of connections readers can make to texts and describe some specific instructional strategies to encourage readers to make these connections.
Readers can make text-to-text connections. These are connections made
between two or more different texts that have been read. Readers might
make connections between the texts’ events, characters, themes, or any
other features. An example is when a reader identifies that characters in two
different books both persisted to overcome challenges.
Text-to-self connections refer to connections readers make between texts
and their own personal experiences. An example is when a reader
understands the sadness a character feels when losing a pet after having
personally experienced the same thing.
Text-to-world connections refer to connections readers make between
events in texts and events that have happened in the real world. An example
is when a reader makes connections between a text about an astronaut and
news about a recent space launch.
To encourage readers to make these connections, teachers can model their
own thinking during shared reading experiences. They can model thinking
deeply about similarities rather than making surface connections. For
example, rather than pointing out that two characters are both girls, they can
compare their character traits. Teachers can also encourage the use of Venn
diagrams to show the similarities and differences between two texts, people,
or events.
Identify some benefits of comparing different books by the same author.
When students read and compare multiple books by the same author,
they use several reading strategies important for comprehension. They
compare and contrast story elements between texts, such as characters,
settings, problems, and solutions; they make text-to-text connections.
They also consider how the author’s life experiences may impact his or
her writing style and content.
After completing multiple author studies, readers may also begin to
identify favorite authors. These authors can serve as mentors for
students, providing models of how to use language and incorporate
story elements in their own writing. The connections readers feel to
their favorite authors can boost engagement with reading and
encourage them to seek out additional texts. Students can learn about
the authors’ lives and the paths they have taken as writers. They may be
inspired by learning that people similar to themselves have become
published authors.
Explain the benefits of learning about topics using different texts and/or genres.
Reading different texts on the same topic can give readers a more
comprehensive understanding of the topic. Each text reflects the
personal writing style and bias of the author. Reading multiple texts
allows readers to hear different perspectives and form their own
judgments.
Reading texts from multiple genres about the same topic is also
beneficial. Each genre presents the information differently and serves
unique purposes. Reading an informational text about the Civil War may
provide readers with an understanding of the war’s causes, events, and
major figures. Reading a historical fiction book written from the
perspective of a soldier may give readers a more personalized account of
this period in time, engaging the readers and helping them form
personal connections.
When reading multiple texts, readers also need to identify the important
points from each and synthesize the information. They need to consider
the authors’ purposes for writing. These skills assist with reading
comprehension.
Define summarization, and describe some specific instructional strategies that can be used to teach readers to summarize effectively.
Summarization refers to providing a concise description of the main
idea and key details of a text. Summarization assists with
comprehension by helping readers separate important information and
vocabulary from unimportant information. It also helps readers
remember what they have read.
Summarization is often a difficult skill for students to learn. Their initial
summaries may provide too few or too many details from the text.
Modeling and explicit instruction can help students learn to provide
effective summaries. Students can be taught to reread a text and cross
off unimportant or repetitive information. They can then be encouraged
to locate and mark the main idea and key details that are essential to
understanding the meaning of the text. Additionally, they can be
encouraged to substitute general words for lists of related words in a
category. For example, rather than listing all of the animals belonging to
a character’s family, students could use the word pets instead.
Readers can also complete graphic organizers to develop their
summaries. One common type of graphic organizer asks students to
complete the following sentence stems to form summaries: Someone,
Wanted, But, So, Then.
Explain the role that prior knowledge plays in reading comprehension, and describe some specific instructional strategies to encourage the use of prior knowledge when reading.
Research has shown that students learn best when they can relate new
information to existing knowledge already stored in long-term memory.
This helps them organize and make sense of the new information and
apply it in future situations. When reading, prior knowledge can help
students determine the meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary words, form
predictions about what might happen next, make inferences, and make
sense of story events. All of these skills are important for
comprehension.
To activate students’ prior knowledge, the teacher can ask what students
already know about a topic when it is introduced. Students’
contributions can be listed on a chart or graphic organizer. Know, want,
and learned (KWL) charts can be completed, listing what students
already know, want to know, and learned about the topic. The teacher
can also ask students to make comparisons by asking how the new topic
is similar to and different from something they have already learned.
Differentiate between denotative and connotative meanings, and describe some reference tools that can be used to clarify the meanings of words.
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Words often have multiple meanings. Denotative meanings are the
literal meanings of words. Connotative meanings are the secondary
meanings of words and refer to the positive and negative associations
that arise from them. For example, the denotative meaning of the word
heart is a muscular organ in the circulatory system that pumps blood. A
connotative meaning of the word heart is love.
There are several reference tools that can be used to locate the meanings
of words. Dictionaries can be used to find the denotative and
connotative meanings of words, along with other information like word
origin and pronunciation. Thesauri can be used to find lists of synonyms
for words, and antonyms are sometimes included as well. Glossaries list
the definitions of important vocabulary words and are often found at the
end of texts. All of these reference tools can be found in both print and
digital forms.
Describe some graphic organizers that can be used to promote reading comprehension and analysis.
Know, want, and learn (KWL) charts can be filled out before and after
reading to identify what readers know, want to know, and learned about
a topic. These charts help activate prior knowledge and give readers a
purpose for reading. Story maps can be used to help readers identify the
main elements of a story, such as characters, setting, problem, events,
and solutions. Character maps can be used to describe traits of
characters in the story.
Other graphic organizers can be used to help readers explain the
relationships among events or ideas in a story. Graphic organizers can
be used to help readers identify the problem and solution in a story,
along with the events that led to the solution. Other graphic organizers
can be used to record inferences and the text evidence used to make
them. Graphic organizers like webs can be used to record the main idea
and supporting details ofa story. Venn diagrams can also be used to
compare and contrast two stories, characters, or other elements.
Explain the importance of being able to recognize faulty reasoning in nonfiction texts, and describe some specific instructional strategies to assist readers with this skill.
Faulty reasoning occurs when conclusions are not supported by facts
and evidence. The ability to recognize faulty reasoning is important
because it helps readers evaluate the claims made in texts to determine
if they are factual or not. It also helps readers identify potential author
bias.
To assist readers with recognizing faulty reasoning, teachers can
explicitly teach several different types and provide examples of how
they are used in real texts. Overgeneralizations occur when authors
draw conclusions based upon insufficient data. An example is stating
that all fourth graders must like pizza because one fourth grader likes
pizza. Personal bias occurs when authors base conclusions on personal
opinions rather than factors or data. Illogical conclusions occur when
authors draw conclusions about the relationships between things
without data supporting the relationships. An example is stating that
because someone was outside in the rain and later got a cold, the rain
must have caused the cold.
Students can be encouraged to locate and share examples of faulty
reasoning found during their independent reading experiences. They
can also be encouraged to verify the sources used by authors to validate
their claims and be wary of unsubstantiated online sources.
Distinguish between facts and opinions, and explain why it is important for students to understand the differences between them. Also describe some specific instructional strategies that can be used to teach students about facts and opinions.
Facts are statements that can be proven to be true. For example, stating
that George Washington was the first president of the United States is a
fact. Opinions are statements that cannot be proven true or false. They
represent people’s judgements or views of something. Stating that cats
are easier to take care of than dogs is an opinion.
It is important for readers to distinguish between facts and opinions.
Recognizing when statements are opinions can help readers identify any
biases the authors may have and recognize that the authors maybe
trying to persuade them. Distinguishing between facts and opinions is
important when reading any text, but it necessitates special
consideration when using digital sources. Anyone can post information
online, and readers must be able to evaluate the sources effectively to
determine if they are based on fact or opinion.
To teach students to identify facts and opinions, teachers can introduce
the terms and provide examples of each. Students can be asked to mark
examples of facts and opinions in texts using different colors. They can
also be encouraged to look for key words that signal opinions, such as
think, believe, feel, best, and favorite.
Define digital literacy, and explain the role it plays in classroom instruction.
Digital literacy refers to the ability to communicate effectively using
digital sources. It involves many component skills, such as locating,
processing, analyzing, evaluating, and creating information in digital
form. Information can be communicated digitally through websites,
social media, apps, digital textbooks, multimedia presentations, emails,
texts, and more.
The continually evolving nature of digital communication presents
challenges for teachers. Tools, software, and equipment should be
selected carefully based upon the ability to help students achieve
learning objectives.
Teachers also need to help students locate and synthesize information
from multiple sources and evaluate the sources for reliability. Students
must also learn to share information responsibly and adhere to
acceptable use policies. Additionally, students need to be taught to
consider their audiences and purposes for communicating in digital
environments, just as they do when communicating through speaking
and writing. For example, different language and sentence structure will
likely be used in business websites than in text messages. With global
business and distance education now common, students also need to be
taught how to use modern tools to collaborate with others.
Define media literacy, and explain the role it plays in classroom instruction.
Media literacy refers to the ability to comprehend, evaluate, and create
media. Media includes methods of communication, such as newspapers,
magazines, videos, television, radio, and books.
Students need to critically evaluate the authors’ messages and points of view
to determine what biases may exist. They also need to determine whether
the information presented is supported by reliable sources. Advertisements
and testimonials may contain unsubstantiated information, for example.
Because there are many different types of media, students also need the
ability to flexibly apply different comprehension strategies. For example,
they may skim through newspaper articles to locate and highlight key
information, whereas they may take notes during videos. Teachers should
incorporate forms of media into classroom instruction and teach strategies
for comprehending and evaluating each type.
Teachers can also allow students opportunities to present their learning
using different forms of media, such as creating podcasts, writing newspaper
articles, filming videos, and more. Students should be taught to consider
which types of media will best convey their messages and reach their
intended audiences. In addition to helping students develop media literacy,
these project options will also accommodate students who prefer different
learning modalities.
Define visual literacy, and explain the role it plays in classroom instruction.
Visual literacy refers to the ability to comprehend, evaluate, and create
visuals. It includes all types of visuals, such as cartoons, photographs,
illustrations, graphs, infographics, and maps.
Visual literacy is important from an early age. Before students can read
words, they “read the pictures” to tell stories and make predictions.
They are later presented with other visuals, such as graphs to explain
data in nonfiction texts and infographics on websites.
As with all forms of media, students need to evaluate author bias and
verify the sources used to create visuals. For example, they can be taught
to consider where the data used to create graphs comes from. Students
also need to extract key information from visuals by looking for clues,
such as bolded print or use of color. Additionally, students need to be
taught about the legal issues involved in creating visuals, including
copyright issues. They also need to consider design and aesthetics
issues.
Teachers can assist students with visual literacy by presenting
information using a combination of print and visual forms and allowing
students choices when completing assignments. For example, students
can create posters to convince other classmates to read favorite books.
Define data literacy, and explain the role it plays in classroom instruction.
Data literacy refers to the ability to comprehend, evaluate, gather, and
organize data. With the increasing reliance on data analytics to drive
business and education-related decisions, data literacy must be
addressed in the classroom.
Students need to learn how to read and interpret different
representations of data, such as charts, graphs, and tables. They also
need to draw informed conclusions from the data and recognize
potential author bias and data misuse.
Additionally, students must decide which types of data will be useful to
answer specific questions and convey certain information. They need to
determine the most effective ways to gather data and present it to
others.
Teachers should incorporate data gathering and analysis into classroom
activities across all subject areas. Students can gather data when
completing science experiments and create tables and graphs to
represent their findings. Teachers can conduct surveys with students
and record their responses using poll-generating tools on the web. Minilessons
can be focused on interpreting and evaluating data found in
nonfiction texts.
Define financial literacy, and explain the role it plays in classroom instruction.
Financial literacy refers to making informed decisions about financial
resources to prepare for a secure future. It includes skills such as saving
and spending money, creating budgets, and paying bills. It also includes
business-related terms like profit, expense, and revenue.
Although financial literacy is commonly linked to math skills like
balancing checkbooks, it relates to traditional literacy as well. People
must be able to read banking and billing statements and understand
their terms and conditions. They must also critically evaluate financial
offers, such as credit card deals, and consider authors’ biases and
underlying intentions. These skills are needed to make informed
financial decisions.
While teaching about financial literacy, teachers should include a variety
of realistic materials for students to read, analyze, and evaluate. They
should be given opportunities to make and justify realistic financial
decisions based on research and analysis.
Define information literacy, and explain the role it plays in classroom instruction.
Information literacy refers to the ability to locate, analyze, and
evaluate information. It also refers to the ability to responsibly share
information with others. Information can be obtained from a variety of
sources, including websites, interviews, newspapers, books, and more.
Students first need to recognize when more information is needed.
Teachers can encourage students to self-monitor their thinking and
recognize when they need to learn more about topics before drawing
conclusions. When planning a school garden, for example, students may
recognize that they need to learn more about which plants grow well in
their area. They may then consult gardening guides to select plants that
are well suited for their climate and soil type.
Once information is located, it needs to be critically analyzed so students
can comprehend it. They also need to consider author bias and reliability
of sources. When sharing information, students need to ensure that they
are using reliable sources and not misleading their audiences.
Define technology literacy, and explain the role it plays in classroom instruction.
Technology literacy involves the ability to use technological tools,
equipment, and software to communicate effectively. It includes using
technology to access, analyze, evaluate, and share information.
Technological tools are now commonly used in education, and teachers
must dedicate instructional time to teaching students how to use them
effectively and responsibly. Teachers can assist students with learning to
use technology to locate information, such as teaching them to enter
specific key words in search engines and skim the results for relevant
matches. They can also teach students how to carefully select which
technological tools they will use to accomplish specific tasks. For
example, if students want to create visual representations of information
for a class project, they may consider and evaluate the effectiveness of
different infographic building tools.
Technology literacy also involves recognizing the possibilities and
limitations of technology in accomplishing specific learning objectives.
Additionally, it involves troubleshooting common technological
problems and using technology in ethical and responsible ways.
Describe some instructional strategies to teach multiple literacies, and explain why this is important.
Multiple literacies are part of modern learning and business. To be
successful, people must effectively process and share different types of
information using multiple media forms. Therefore, teachers must
devote instructional time to teaching students the skills they need to
succeed in this technology-rich environment.
Teaching multiple literacies requires a mixture of explicit instruction,
guided practice, and opportunities for application. For example, teachers
need to teach students to find supporting details in digital texts. They
may explicitly teach this skill during mini-lessons by modeling how they
highlight key phrases. Teachers may then ask students to highlight key
phrases in digital texts independently while they observe and provide
feedback. Students may then be given multiple opportunities to apply
this skill throughout the year to complete projects and assignments.
Teachers should also provide opportunities for students to interact with
texts of all types and communicate using different media. They can offei
choices in projects and assignments as long as instructional objectives
are met. This method allows students to pursue their own interests and
leads to increased engagement and ownership over learning.
Describe some characteristics of auditory learners, and explain how teachers can utilize instructional strategies to meet their needs.
Auditory learners easily gather and process information through
listening. For example, they may determine main ideas from lectures,
assess subtle details from speakers’ tones during conversations, and
follow oral directions to complete multistep tasks. Auditory learners
often enjoy speaking as well, and they may frequently participate in
class discussions and conversations.
Teachers can implement many instructional strategies to support
auditory learners. They can incorporate read-alouds, discussions, and
lectures into classroom activities. They can provide audio versions of
textbooks and storybooks. They can also record lectures so students can
listen to them later to prepare for assignments and assessments.
Teachers can allow students to interview others to gather information,
and they can introduce songs, chants, and rhymes to assist with
memorization. When designing projects and assessments, teachers can
allow students to complete oral reports or presentations. Additionally,
they can allow students to think through problems out loud and offer
verbal feedback. Directions can also be given orally.
Describe some characteristics of visual learners, and explain how teachers can utilize instructional strategies to meet their needs.
Visual learners easily gather and process information by observing.
They may learn by seeing written words, photographs, models, or any
other visual representations of information. For example, they may
locate words signaling the main ideas of written texts, summarize events
detailed in illustrations, or complete new tasks after seeing the steps
modeled.
Teachers can implement many instructional strategies to support visual
learners. They can encourage visual learners to take notes when reading
new texts or learning new concepts. Notes can consist of words, pictures,
or combinations of both. Teachers can also provide written directions to
complete tasks, or they can visually model the steps. Additionally,
teachers can use photos, realistic objects, diagrams, and other visual
materials when introducing new concepts to learners. They can provide
graphic organizers to help learners visualize the connections among
concepts. When reading aloud, teachers can also share and discuss the
illustrations. When teachers are designing projects and assessments,
they can allow students to present their learning through multimedia
presentations, models, or other visual means.
Describe some characteristics of kinesthetic Learners, and explain how teachers can utilize instructional strategies to meet their needs.
Kinesthetic learners learn best by doing. They benefit from watching
people model how to do things and being given opportunities to do
things themselves. They also benefit from opportunities to be active
within the classroom.
Teachers can implement many instructional strategies to support
kinesthetic learners. They can consider active ways for students to learn
and practice new concepts. For example, first grade students can trace
sight words in chalk and hop along the letters, helping them memorize
the spellings. Students of all ages can complete science experiments that
allow them to mix, measure, and complete other scientific tasks. During
math lessons on comparing and ordering numbers, students can form
human number lines and discuss the processes they used.
Classroom arrangements and routines are also important for kinesthetic
learners. Teachers can consider flexible seating arrangements and
opportunities to move throughout the classroom to accommodate these
students’ needs.
Describe some characteristics of tactile learners, and explain how teachers can utilize instructional strategies to meet their needs.
Tactile learning is sometimes viewed as a synonym of kinesthetic
learning, but there are some key differences. Kinesthetic learning refers
to active learning by doing, and tactile learning refers to learning
through physical touch. Tactile learners benefit from frequent
opportunities to feel and manipulate items during instruction.
Teachers can implement many instructional strategies to support tactile
learners. For example, early childhood students can trace letter cards
made of different textures. Students can be given opportunities to spell
words in rice, sand, or other textured materials. Manipulating letter tiles
can also be used during word work activities. When completing science
activities, students can feel objects and describe their textures. During
math activities, students can use manipulatives to explore concepts and
solve problems. When teachers are designing projects and assessments,
they can also allow students to present their learning using models
constructed from types of artistic materials.
Explain the importance of using instructional strategies that address all learning modalities.
Teachers should consider all learning modalities and accommodate auditory,
visual, kinesthetic, and tactile learners within the classroom. This is
important for several reasons, including the possibility that each student
may display preferences for multiple modalities. Additionally, students can
benefit from having information presented in multiple ways. For example,
students may learn how to complete new tasks by watching their teachers
model the steps. However, if given opportunities to practice the steps
themselves, students may be better able to remember and apply them in the
future.
Teachers need to consider the specifics of each concept they are teaching
when determining which modalities to address during instruction. For
example, it is difficult to teach letter formation using only oral directions.
Students benefit from seeing the process teachers use to form each letter and
from having opportunities to practice forming the letters independently.
When teaching rhyming, auditory instruction is important. All modalities
play a role in learning.
Classrooms are also made up of diverse students who prefer different
modalities. To meet the needs of all learners, teachers can offer instructional
choices and present information in multiple ways. For example, teachers can
offer print and auditory versions of texts. Directions can be provided in
written form and spoken verbally. Teachers can also offer project choices
that allow students to present their learning in oral, written, or visual form.
Describe some instructional strategies that can be used to help students produce quality writing in the content areas, and explain why this is important.
In preparation for the workforce and independent living, students must
be able to successfully write for a variety of purposes and audiences.
This is essential because effective writing is required in many
professions. For example, scientists publish research studies, sales
professionals write sales reports, and marketing specialists create
advertisements.
Going through the steps of the writing process helps students organize,
synthesize, analyze, and evaluate complex information. They must make
judgments about what information is relevant and which text structures
should be used to best convey meaning. Putting content into their own
words helps students comprehend difficult information and vocabulary.
Therefore, writing in the content areas supports comprehension in these
areas as well.
Teachers can provide varied types of texts to support learning in the
content areas. This may include fiction books, journal articles, diaries,
field guides, research studies, maps, interview transcripts, and more.
Students should interact with various quality texts and discuss the roles
they play in different professions.
