Assessment and Instructional Design Making Flashcards
Describe the cloze reading procedure, and explain the benefits of cloze reading instruction.
Cloze reading is an instructional strategy in which students read brief
passages containing omitted words. They rely on background
knowledge, semantic clues, and/or syntactic clues to determine the
unknown words.
When designing doze reading passages, teachers should consider a few
key factors. The passages should be at the appropriate reading levels for the students. Students should be able to guess the omitted words by using reading strategies. If students need additional scaffolding to determine the missing words, word banks can be provided.
Cloze reading activities can be clone independently or with partners.
They can also be done as whole-class activities, with teachers reading
the main passages and students supplying the missing words.
Cloze reading has several benefits. It requires students to use a variety
of reading strategies, including using context clues, to determine the
missing words. Students also cross-check their use of cueing systems to
determine unknown words in doze passages. If students read the
passages multiple times to determine the missing words, it builds
fluency as well.
Describe the language experience approach to reading instruction.
The language experience approach focuses on using students’ own
experiences as the topics of literacy experiences. Students think about
experiences they would like to share. They dictate the experiences to
teachers, who write the students’ words down in front of them. The
teachers then read the texts aloud while pointing to each word,
modeling appropriate fluency. Students are then invited to join the
teachers in rereading the texts.
The language experience approach can also be done as a whole-class
activity, with classes writing about shared experiences together. For
example, they could write about projects recently completed at school.
Teachers help students generate ideas for what to include and list
relevant vocabulary words that may be used. Students then dictate
sentences to their teachers, who record them on chart paper.
The classes then reread the texts multiple times.
A benefit of the language experience approach is that it involves reading, writing, listening, and speaking. It also builds upon students’ prior knowledge and interests. If students are given multiple opportunities to reread the texts they have created, it also assists with fluency.
Describe guided reading instruction, and explain how it is beneficial for reading development.
Guided reading is an important part of any balanced literacy program.
During guided reading, teachers arrange students in flexible groups
and meet with each group separately. While meeting with each group,
teachers provide students with their own copies of leveled texts that are
within their instructional reading levels. Before reading, teachers
conduct picture walks, pre-teach vocabulary, and review strategies that
will be helpful when reading the given texts. Students then read the texts independently in whisper voices while the teachers observe and make notes about students’ reading. After students have read the texts
independently, the teachers conduct mini-lessons on skills that are
targeted in the texts, such as specific spelling patterns that are
repeatedly used. Students then take the texts to reread later, helping
build fluency.
The flexible nature of guided reading groups ensures that students are
always reading books within their instructional reading levels. Because
the groups are small, teachers also have frequent opportunities to
observe students’ use of reading strategies, make notes about their
progress, and determine which skills need additional practice. Guided
reading also allows teachers to deliver targeted mini-lessons to groups
of students with similar needs.
Describe shared reading experiences, and explain their role in literacy development.
During shared reading experiences, teachers read aloud to students
using materials like large print books, texts written on chart paper, and
projected texts. Students follow along as teachers read and point to each word. Shared reading is an interactive experience, and teachers stop frequently to ask questions and model use of strategies. Depending on the ages and reading levels of the students, teachers focus on different teaching points. For example, kindergarten teachers may model and discuss concepts of print, whereas teachers of students in older grades may model and discuss comprehension strategies. Students may join the teachers in reading the texts as well.
Shared reading can be used across all subject areas and has several
benefits. It allows students to see teachers modeling the use of reading
strategies and practice using these strategies with scaffolding. It also
allows students to participate in reading and discussing quality texts
that they may not yet be able to read independently. Students learn
about text features like punctuation marks and spelling patterns that
they can incorporate into their own writing. They also have
opportunities to hear examples affluent reading.
Describe read-alouds, and explain how they differ from shared reading experiences.
During read-alouds, teachers read texts aloud to students. Depending
on their purposes for reading, they may or may not pause to model the
use of strategies or ask questions. Some read-alouds may be done
strictly for entertainment purposes, whereas others may be done to
provide background knowledge in content areas or allow for the
modeling of reading strategies.
The key difference between read-alouds and shared reading experiences is that students do not have access to the texts during read-alouds. They listen as teachers read aloud, and they are sometimes shown the pictures. The focus is on listening to the texts and the teachers’ use of strategies; students do not join in reading.
Explain the benefits of independent daily reading time, and describe how it can be incorporated in the classroom.
Independent daily reading has several benefits. Reading self-selected
books can boost engagement with reading and help students develop a
love of reading. When given opportunities to reread favorite texts,
fluency may also increase. Independent reading also gives students
opportunities to apply reading strategies to new texts autonomously.
Books for independent reading are usually self-selected. Students in the
early stages of reading development who cannot read texts
independently can be encouraged to “read the pictures.” Teachers can
model how to use prior knowledge and picture clues to tell the stories in their own words. Students who are able to read the words can be
encouraged to select appropriate texts for independent reading time.
Depending on the ages of the students, teachers may need to help
readers build reading stamina. They can schedule a few minutes of daily
independent reading time early in the school year and gradually add
additional minutes. Teachers may schedule whole-class independent
reading time or establish it as one station for students to complete
during literacy stations.
Students can also be encouraged to have book boxes that contain several texts at the appropriate reading levels for use during independent reading time.
Explain the role that non-contextual strategies play in vocabulary development, and describe some instructional methods to help students use these strategies.
Non-contextual strategies are used when new vocabulary is learned
without seeing or hearing the words in context. For example, teachers
may give students lists of new vocabulary words they have not yet
encountered in texts. The teachers may ask students to define the words, use them in sentences, and memorize them. Quizzes may then be given in which students must match the words to their definitions or provide examples of the terms.
There are times teachers may use non-contextual vocabulary strategies,
such as when students are learning content-specific words that are not
often found naturally in texts. When studying parts of speech, for
example, teachers may have students memorize the definitions of noun, verb, and adjective. These words are important for students’
understanding of sentence structure, yet students are not likely to
encounter these words written in texts with contextual clues. However,
it is recommended that teachers do use contextual strategies whenever
possible.
Students can be taught to use tools such as dictionaries to define
unknown words when contextual clues are not available. They can be
prompted to draw pictures to explain word meanings or use graphic
organizers to show the relationships among words.
Explain the role that contextual strategies play in vocabulary development, and describe some instructional methods to help students use these strategies.
Contextual strategies are used to determine the meanings of unknown
vocabulary words when they are encountered in context. The ability to
use these strategies to quickly determine word meanings is important
for both reading fluency and comprehension. Because words can have
multiple meanings, readers also need to use contextual strategies to
determine which meaning makes sense in a given sentence.
Teachers can explicitly teach students about the different types of
contextual clues often found in sentences. They can encourage students to highlight the words and phrases that provide clues about meanings of the vocabulary words.
Contextual clues often include synonyms or antonyms for the unknown
vocabulary words. Therefore, when introducing new words, teachers
can assist students with creating lists of synonyms and antonyms.
Teachers can also ask students to solve analogies or determine which
word does not belong when given a group of related words. These
activities will help students recognize synonyms and antonyms and
understand relationships among words when they are encountered in
context.
Explain some criteria that teachers should consider when selecting vocabulary words for instruction.
Vocabulary words can be divided into three tiers. Teachers should
consider these tiers when determining which words to focus on during
instruction.
Tier one words are common words used in everyday speech. They are
typically learned by the early grades through normal conversation.
Explicit instruction on the meanings of these words is seldom needed.
Tier two words are found in both fiction and nonfiction texts and are
common enough that readers will likely encounter them in multiple
texts. Tier two words carry a lot of meaning and can negatively affect
comprehension if they are not understood by readers. When deciding
which tier two words to focus on, teachers should consider how the
words affect the overall meanings of the texts and their morphologies.
They should consider if students will be able to form connections
between these words and other words, helping them understand
unfamiliar words encountered in the future.
Tier three words are mostly found in nonfiction texts and are domain-specific. These words are important for understanding the texts and
their domains. Because students are unlikely to have encountered these words before, explicit instruction is needed. This often includes pre-teaching the words and analyzing them in context.
Define idioms, and explain some instructional strategies that can be used to help students understand their uses and meanings.
Idioms are a type of figurative language. They are expressions that have
unique meanings that differ from the literal meanings of their
component words. They are typically passed down within cultures. For
example, “It’s raining cats and dogs” is an idiom that means it is raining
hard.
Idioms can be introduced to students a few at a time, with students
contrasting the literal and figurative meanings. They can practice using
context clues to determine the meanings of unknown idioms, and they
can look for examples of idioms in texts. They can also explore the ways
that idioms make writing interesting. For example, they can write a
paragraph using the idiom, “It’s raining cats and dogs.” They can then
rewrite the paragraph, substituting the words, “It’s raining hard.” They
can compare the effects of each option on readers.
Special consideration should be given when using idioms with ELLs in
the early stages of English language acquisition. Because vocabulary
knowledge cannot be used to assist with comprehension of idioms,
students may miss the meanings and become frustrated.
Explain what proverbs are and why they are important to teach. Describe some instructional strategies to help students recognize proverbs and understand their meanings.
Proverbs are short, well-known sayings that offer wisdom or advice.
They are commonly passed down within cultures using oral language.
An example of a proverb is: “Actions speak louder than words.” Proverbs
often use figurative language, and their literal meanings do not make
sense. Therefore, students need to be taught to recognize proverbs and
understand their figurative meanings to comprehend the overall
messages of the texts containing them.
When introducing proverbs, teachers can help students understand the
cultural and historical significance behind them. For example, the
proverb “Don’t look a gift horse in the mouth” refers to the historical
practice of assessing a horse’s teeth to determine its age. The proverb
refers to being grateful for what you are given rather than assessing the
worth of a gift. Teachers can help students research these proverbs to
provide historical contexts for their meanings.
Students can write proverbs on graphic organizers and list both their
literal and figurative meanings. They can analyze what the proverbs
have in common, such as offering wisdom or advice about life.
Additionally, when they are encountered in texts, readers can analyze
how the meanings of the proverbs contribute to the meanings of the
stories.
Describe some instructional strategies to help students recognize and use abbreviations and acronyms appropriately.
Because there are numerous abbreviations and acronyms, teachers need to selectively choose which ones to focus on for instructional purposes. Therefore, teachers often address abbreviations and acronyms as they come up in students’ reading and writing. For example, when writing letters, teachers can explain the abbreviations Dr., Mr., and Mrs. Teachers can also observe issues with abbreviations and acronyms as they occur in students’ writing and address them through mini-lessons. Examples of abbreviations and acronyms can be pointed out in texts. Charts displaying common abbreviations and their long—form versions can also be displayed in classrooms to provide scaffolding before they are memorized.
In the age of digital communication and social media, it is also important to teach students when it is appropriate to use abbreviations and acronyms. Students need to consider their purpose for communication and their relationship with their audience. For example, informal acronyms may be appropriate for texts between friends but not for use in business letters.
Describe the characteristics of shared writing experiences, and explain the benefits of shared writing.
During shared writing experiences, teachers and students
collaboratively plan the content of shared writing pieces. Teachers assist their students with choosing topics, deciding which details to include, selecting words, and organizing text structure. Students are asked to share their ideas, and teachers help students organize their thoughts and put them into writing. Teachers control the writing instruments and put the words down on paper. Along the way, they may ask students for assistance with spelling words, determining how to punctuate, and other issues. Teachers model their thinking and use of writing strategies throughout the process. Once the drafting is finished, students may assist with revising, editing, and reading the texts aloud.
Shared writing experiences give students opportunities to be active
participants in scaffolded versions of the writing process and work
collaboratively to develop quality writing pieces. Additionally, they
benefit from observing their teachers as they model the use of writing
strategies.
Describe the characteristics of interactive writing experiences, and explain the benefits of interactive writing.
During interactive writing experiences, teachers and students work
together to create shared writing pieces. With teacher guidance,
students help plan writing topics, determine which details to include,
and organize text structure. Students share the writing utensils with
teachers and contribute to recording the words on paper. Teachers
provide guidance along the way. For example, they may remind students of recently learned spelling patterns while students are spelling the words on paper. Classes may also work together to revise, edit, and read the writing pieces.
Giving students control over the writing utensils is what differentiates
interactive writing from shared writing. In shared writing, teachers
record the words on paper.
Interactive writing allows students to be active participants in the
writing process while receiving scaffolding from teachers. It also allows
students to collaboratively create quality writing pieces they are unable
to produce independently at their current stages of writing
development. Additionally, teachers can build targeted mini-lessons into the interactive writing process.
Describe phonetic spelling, and explain the role it plays in literacy and writing development.
Phonetic spelling is common in the early stages of writing development.
When writing words, students consider what sounds they hear. They use knowledge of phonics rules to select letters or groups of letters to represent those sounds. For example, a student who is familiar with CVC words might write love as luv.
Parents are sometimes concerned with the amount of misspelled words in their children’s writing. However, phonetic spelling plays a role in reading and writing development and is a stepping stone to conventional spelling.
At this stage, students know how to automatically spell a limited number of words. Using known phonics rules helps them efficiently encode words they do not know how to spell. If students are worried about spelling every word conventionally, they must continuously ask others for help. This slows the writing process and puts more emphasis on spelling than on recording ideas. Therefore, teachers typically tell students in this stage to write the sounds they hear and move on. This process also allows students to apply the phonics skills they use while reading.
Over time, students learn more complex spelling patterns and automatically remember how to spell more words. At this point, spelling becomes more conventional.
Explain how word walls can be used to support reading and writing development.
Word walls are collections of words that are prominently displayed in
classrooms. Words selected for display on word walls should be
meaningful for students. They might include high-frequency words that
students need to read and write often or academic vocabulam-y words
related to units of study. Word walls are flexible, and words may be
added or removed throughout the year based on students’ needs.
Teachers should model how to use word walls to locate and spell high-frequency words. Words may be attached using Velcro, magnets, or
other methods that allow them to be removed. This allows students to
take the words down while using them and return them to the wall
when finished.
There are many ways to organize word walls. Words can be listed
alphabetically under letter headings, helping young writers quickly
locate them for spelling assistance. If focused on academic vocabulary,
the words can be grouped by topic. Visuals can be included with
vocabulary words to assist students with remembering meanings.
Describe some different approaches to teaching students to spell.
There are many methods and commercial programs available to teach
spelling. Although they vary in approach, the methods that are most
effective share some common characteristics.
Effective spelling instruction should be explicit. Although students
naturally learn to spell many words through frequent reading
experiences, some explicit spelling instruction is still helpful to teach
common spelling patterns and relationships among words. The
instruction should be both incremental and sequential.
Teachers can introduce weekly spelling patterns, and students can
complete activities to familiarize themselves with the patterns.
Depending on the ages of the students, this may include word sorts,
word hunts, and tracing. Multisensory activities are also helpful, such as
building words with letter tiles and writing words in sand. Teachers may
assess students’ applications of the spelling patterns at the end of each
week. Some teachers give students lists of words to study ahead of time. Other teachers assess students by asking them to spell new words that follow the patterns they have been studying.
Describe the stages of spelling development.
Students typically progress through a series of stages of spelling
development. Researchers name the stages differently, but they contain
common characteristics.
In the pre-phonetic stage, students spell using random letter and
number strings. There are no letter-sound relationships evident in
words. In the semi-phonetic stage, some letter-sound relationships are
used to spell words. Students typically learn to correctly spell the
beginning and ending sounds in words first, followed later by the medial sounds. In the phonetic stage, some simple words begin to be spelled correctly, such as CVC words. In addition to initial, medial, and final sounds, some more complex sounds are accurately represented. This includes some consonant blends and digraphs. In the transitional, or word extension stage, students learn to use syllable patterns to spell
more complex words. Most words are spelled correctly in this stage. In
the derivational constancy stage, students use knowledge of roots and
affixes to spell related words. Most om- all words in students’ writing
pieces are spelled correctly in this stage.
Define orthography, and describe some instructional strategies to help students explore the three layers of orthography.
Orthography refers to the conventional spelling of words in a language.
Because many words are spelled using the same patterns, studying
orthography helps students increase the number of words they can spell correctly. Learning to apply orthographic patterns is an important part of any literacy program.
Word studies, or word work, should be regularly included in the school
day. Word work should be sequential and built upon the knowledge of
orthographic patterns that students already possess.
There are three layers of orthography that students can explore during
word work. The alphabet layer refers to letter-sound relationships.
Activities in which students combine letters or letter groups to form
words will help them explore the alphabet layer. When students explore
the pattern layer, they look for larger patterns that guide the spellings
of words. Activities in which students build words within word families,
such as CVCe words, help them explore the pattern layer. The meaning
layer explores the relationships between word meanings and spellings.
Sorting and writing words that contain the same Latin roots will help
students explore the meaning layer of orthography.
Explain the role that memorization plays in spelling development and instruction.
There are some words that students cannot learn to spell by learning
spelling patterns. These include many high-frequency words with
irregular spelling patterns, such as the word the. Students should have
frequent and repeated exposure to these words to memorize their
spellings. Practice activities are helpful, such as building these words
with letter tiles.
Some academic vocabulary words are also difficult for students to spell
using knowledge of spelling patterns. For example, second graders may
learn about camouflage as part of a science unit on animal adaptations.
However, it would be difficult for students of this age to spell the word
camouflage using knowledge of spelling patterns. Frequent exposure to
these academic words in print will help students learn to spell them over time. Adding these words to word walls or classroom charts can serve as tools to assist with spelling initially. Being given numerous
opportunities to write these words with scaffolding will assist with
memorization.
Although memorization plays a role in spelling some words, its use as an instructional strategy should be balanced with explicit instruction in
spelling patterns. When choosing weekly spelling lists, teachers should
focus on patterns that can be applied to multiple words.
Describe some principles of effective writing.
Clarity and brevity are two related principles of effective writing. They
require writers to include sufficient detail to convey their intended
meanings while simultaneously omitting any extraneous or repetitive
information. Students should be encouraged to consider the value that
each word and sentence adds to their writing to determine whether or
not it should be included. They should also consider the background
knowledge of their intended audiences to ensure they go into the
appropriate amount of detail to meet their needs.
Author’s craft and voice are also important principles of effective
writing that draw readers in and compel them to read more. In fictional
texts, they help readers identify with characters and make the stories
seem realistic. These principles help maintain reader engagement with
the texts.
Additionally, careful editing is important for effective writing. If
numerous errors are present, the meanings of the texts maybe affected.
Describe some instructional strategies to help students edit their writing to correct errors with mechanics.
Frequent modeling is helpful when teaching students to edit. Teachers
can model using editing checklists or rubrics to check for errors in their
own work. The class can edit writing pieces they have composed
together during shared writing experiences or edit texts containing
errors written by other authors.
Teachers can also instruct students to follow routines when editing. This
may include completing editing checklists or recalling mnemonic
devices to ensure that all areas have been checked. CUPS is one
mnemonic device that can be used to remind young writers to check for
capitalization, usage, punctuation, and spelling. Because it can be
difficult for students to recognize errors in their own writing, teachers
can also encourage students to edit their own work first and then ask
other students to edit it as well.
Additionally, students benefit from frequent, shared reading experiences using large print books, projected digital texts, or other means that allow them to follow along as teachers read. Teachers can stop to point out how authors use capital letters, punctuation marks, and other conventions. Frequently seeing these conventions in use will help students understand their purposes and notice when they are used incorrectly in other texts.
Describe some instructional strategies to help students use correct punctuation in their writing.
Teachers can explicitly teach students about each punctuation mark by
introducing it, discussing its purpose, and demonstrating how to use it
correctly in writing.
Students should also have frequent opportunities to explore how
punctuation is used in context. They can be asked to find examples of
certain punctuation marks in texts and examine the roles they play in
the sentences. They can try reading the sentences with the given
punctuation marks. They can then reread them with the punctuation
marks omitted or substituted and discuss the differences in meaning and tone. For example, students could read a sentence in a book ending with a period, using appropriate intonation and pausing. They could then substitute the period for an exclamation point, adjusting their intonation. They could discuss how the meaning and tone of the
sentence changed. Students can also edit their own writing by reading it
aloud, using the intonation and phrasing suggested by the punctuation
marks they included. They can ask themselves if any areas sound
unclear, such as if sentences seem to blend together. They can also use
punctuation checklists and ask other classmates to edit their work to
double-check for errors.
Describe some instructional strategies to help students use correct capitalization in their writing.
One strategy to teach proper capitalization is to give students texts and
ask them to circle all capital letters. Students can then be asked to
identify what the words with capital letters have in common, leading to a discussion of capitalization rules. These rules can also be explicitly
taught with examples provided.
Posters can be displayed in classrooms as reminders of when to
capitalize letters, such as at the beginnings of sentences, when using
proper nouns, or when writing the word I.
Additionally, students can be asked to edit texts, including their own
writing pieces, to locate capitalization errors. Students should be
reminded that errors may include both randomly capitalized letters and
lowercase letters that should be capitalized.
The ability to differentiate between common and proper nouns is
needed to apply capitalization rules correctly. To assist with this skill,
students can complete word sorts with common and proper nouns. They can also locate and circle examples of each type in texts.
Define rubric, and explain the benefits of using rubrics to assess literacy development.
Rubrics are evaluation tools used to assign scores to students’ work.
They explain the criteria used to assign scores for different levels of
mastery. Rubrics can be given to students when projects are assigned to ensure they understand expectations. They can make evaluation more consistent because all students are evaluated using the same criteria. Rubrics can also be easily adapted to reflect different types of activities and assignments.
There are many ways rubrics can be used to evaluate literacy
development. They can be used to assess students’ reading fluency, with categories relating to speed, accuracy, and prosody. They can also be used to evaluate projects relating to analysis and comprehension.
Additionally, rubrics can be used to assess students’ writing. Categories
relating to development, use of language, conventions, and other topics
can be included. The rubrics can be adapted to reflect the genres or text
structures used.
Differentiate between analytic and holistic rubrics, and explain the advantages and disadvantages of each.
Analytic rubrics assign separate scores for each criterion being
evaluated. For example, if a writing rubric has criteria for development,
use of language, and conventions, each of these areas receives its own
score. These scores are then added together to determine the overall
score for the assignment. Analytic rubrics provide targeted feedback and help students understand their strengths and weaknesses. However, they can be time-consuming to create and adapt.
Holistic rubrics provide one overall score for the assignment rather
than evaluating each criterion separately. They list varying levels of
performance, and each level describes the characteristics of assignments earning that score. For example, a writing assignment might be assigned a score ranging from 1 to 4. Assignments earning a score of 4 would be well developed, have effective use of language, and have few or no errors with conventions. Holistic rubrics can be faster for teachers to create and adapt for different assignments. However, the feedback is less targeted than it is when using analytic rubrics, which evaluate each criterion separately.
Describe some purposes of literacy assessment.
Literacy assessments can serve many purposes. Assessments can be
used to monitor the progress of students toward achieving district and
state benchmarks as well as individualized goals. They can identify
specific skills that students have mastered as well as those that need
additional practice. They can also identify if students are making
adequate yearly progress.
Additionally, assessments can be used to guide teacher instruction. By
analyzing assessment results, teachers can determine which topics they
should focus on for whole-class, small-group, and individualized
instruction. This helps ensure that too much instructional time is not
spent on topics students have already mastered while ignoring topics
that need additional practice.
Assessments can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of reading
programs. By analyzing students’ assessment data over time, districts
can look for trends in student achievement and progress toward closing
achievement gaps.
Differentiate between screening and diagnostic assessments, and explain the purposes of each.
Screening assessments are used to identify students who may be at
risk for future academic difficulties. Information gained from these
assessments can be used to determine which students would likely
benefit from specialized interventions to help prevent academic
difficulties in the future.
Adequate literacy screening is important in young children. Studies have shown that literacy difficulties are harder to remedy through
intervention after third grade. By identifying these students early and
providing appropriate interventions, these difficulties can be prevented
or lessened. For example, phonemic awareness screenings are
frequently given to early childhood students because phonemic
awareness is a key indicator of future reading success.
Diagnostic assessments are used to identify students’ existing
knowledge and skills before beginning instruction. For example,
students may complete diagnostic assessments focused on using
comprehension strategies to understand nonfiction texts. Data from
diagnostic assessments can be used to help teachers plan differentiated instruction to meet students’ individual needs.
Differentiate between formal and informal assessments, and describe some advantages and disadvantages of each.
Formal assessments are administered and scored in a standardized
fashion. Therefore, scoring is objective. Formal assessments can provide information about students’ performances in relationship to other students and data regarding how well they have learned specific skills. Formal assessments include both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests. Examples include commercial standardized tests, state-mandated standardized tests, district assessments, and quizzes.
Informal assessments are not administered or scored in a standardized
fashion. Scoring is subjective. Examples include student interviews,
classroom observations, anecdotal records, and checklists.
Although formal assessments can provide useful data about student
performance and progress, they can be costly and time-consuming to
implement. Administering formal assessments often interrupts
classroom instruction, and it may cause testing anxiety. Informal
assessments do not provide objective data for analysis, but they can be
implemented quickly and inexpensively. Informal assessments can also
be incorporated into regular classroom instruction and activities,
making them more authentic and less stressful for students.
Differentiate between formative and summative assessment, and describe some uses for each.
Formative assessments are conducted throughout the learning process.
Formative assessments are diagnostic in nature and are used to
identify both existing knowledge and gaps. Information learned from
formative assessments can be used to plan and guide instruction.
Formative assessments can be formal or informal and may include
observations, homework assignments, class discussions, and weekly
quizzes. They may include a combination of teacher assessments and
student self-assessments.
Summative assessments are used to evaluate students’ learning after
units of instruction have concluded. Summative assessments are usually considered to be higher stakes than formative assessments and typically include formal grades or scores. Examples of summative assessments include unit tests and yearly standardized tests. Summative assessments can assist teachers with determining if instruction has been successful or if changes need to be made to their instructional methods.
Both formative and summative assessments provide value to teachers
and play a role in the classroom. The results of each can be used to
improve instruction.
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of group and individual literacy assessments.
Group literacy assessments are administered to groups of students at
one time. Teachers explain the directions and then instruct all students
to begin working, while they observe and answer questions.
Assessments are scored after students finish and submit them. Examples of group literacy assessments include state-mandated standardized reading and writing tests. Using the group approach to literacy assessments is more efficient than individualized assessment, freeing up more time for classroom instruction. It also assists teachers with classroom management because all students are being assessed at once.
Individualized assessments are given to one student at a time. Teachers
may listen to students read, observe strategy usage, or ask students to
retell stories they have read. Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy
Skills (DIBELS) and Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA) are
examples of individual assessments. This approach allows teachers to
closely observe the strategies each student uses. However, it is more
time intensive, and the remaining students in the class must be engaged
in other activities.
Describe some advantages and disadvantages of using technology-based assessments.
Technology-based assessments can have many advantages. They can be given to large numbers of students at once, limited only by the amounts of technological equipment schools possess. Many types of technology-based assessments are instantly scored, and feedback is quickly provided. Students are sometimes able to view their results and
feedback at the conclusion of their testing sessions. Data can be quickly
compiled and reported in easy-to-understand formats.
Technology-based assessments can also often track student progress over time. Technology-based assessments can have some disadvantages as well. Glitches and system errors can interfere with the assessment process or score reporting. Students must also have the necessary prerequisite technological skills to take the asses3ments, or the results may not measure the content they are designed to measure. For example, if students take timed computer-based writing tests, they should have proficient typing skills. Otherwise, they may perform poorly on the tests despite strong writing abilities. Other prerequisite skills include knowing how to use a keyboard and mouse and understanding how to locate necessary information on the screen.
Describe some characteristics of norm-referenced tests, and explain some advantages and disadvantages of their use.
On norm-referenced tests, students’ performances are compared to
the performances of sample groups of similar students. Norm-referenced tests identify students who score above and below the
average. To ensure reliability, the tests must be given in a standardized
manner to all students.
Norm-referenced tests usually cover a broad range of skills, such as the
entire grade-level curriculum for a subject. They typically contain a few
questions per skill. Whereas scores in component areas of the tests may be calculated, usually overall test scores are reported. Scores are often reported using percentile ranks, which indicate what percentage of test takers scored lower than the student being assessed. For example, a student’s score in the 75th percentile means the student scored better than 75% of other test takers. Other times, scores may be reported using grade-level equivalency.
One advantage of norm-referenced tests is their objectivity. They also
allow educators to compare large groups of students at once. This may
be helpful for making decisions regarding class placements and
groupings. A disadvantage of norm-referenced tests is that they only
indicate how well students perform in comparison to one another. They
do not indicate whether or not students have mastered certain skills.
Describe some characteristics of criterion-referenced tests, and explain some advantages and disadvantages of their use.
Criterion-referenced tests measure how well students perform on
certain skills or standards. The goal of these tests is to indicate whether
or not students have mastered certain skills and which skills require
additional instruction. Scores are typically reported using the
percentage of questions answered correctly or students’ performance
levels. Performance levels are outlined using terms such as below
expectations, met expectations, and exceeded expectations.
One advantage of criterion-referenced tests is they provide teachers
with useful information to guide instruction. They can identify which
specific skills students have mastered and which skills need additional
practice. Teachers can use this information to plan whole-class, small-group, and individualized instruction. Analyzing results of criterion-referenced tests over time can also help teachers track student progress on certain skills. A disadvantage of criterion-referenced tests is they do not allow educators to compare students’ performances to samples of their peers.
Explain some common ways that standardized test results are reported.
Raw scores are sometimes reported and indicate how many questions
students answered correctly on a test. By themselves, they do not provide much useful information. They do not indicate how students performed in comparison to other students or to grade-level expectations.
Grade-level equivalents are also sometimes reported. A grade-level
equivalent score of 3.4 indicates that a student performed as well as an
average third grader in the fourth month of school. It can indicate whether a student is performing above or below grade-level expectations, but it does not indicate that the student should be moved to a different grade level.
Standard scores are used to compare students’ performances on tests to standardized samples of their peers. Standard deviation refers to the amount that a set of scores differs from the mean score on a test.
Percentile ranks are used on criterion-referenced tests to indicate what
percentage of test takers scored lower than the student whose score is being reported.
Cutoff scores refer to predetermined scores students must obtain in order to be considered proficient in certain areas. Scores below the cutoff level indicate improvement is needed and may result in interventions or instructional changes.
Describe how progress monitoring can be used to assess students and guide instruction.
Progress monitoring is used to track students’ progress toward
achieving certain performance goals over time. Teachers first identify
students who may benefit from progress monitoring. This usually occurs as a result of assessment data. Students who score below expectations on certain components of criterion-referenced tests may be progressively monitored in those areas.
Teachers then set performance goals that can be measured and tracked
over time. For example, if students are currently decoding five CVC
words correctly in one minute, the goal may be for them to decode 15
words per minute. Interventions are put in place to help students with
these skills. Teachers then repeat testing in these targeted areas on a
regular basis, such as weekly or biweekly. Results are recorded, and
teachers look for progress over time. Once students have mastered the
initial goals, new goals are set, or progress monitoring is discontinued,
depending on students’ needs.
Progress monitoring can help teachers identify whether or not current
interventions are successful or whether changes are needed. It can also
help teachers identify when students have mastered certain skills.
Differentiate among validity, reliability, and bias in testing.
Testing validity refers to how well tests measure what they claim to
measure. For example, a test designed to measure students’ knowledge
of concepts of print should include a range of questions requiring
students to recognize and apply these concepts. Unrelated questions
should not be included.
Testing reliability refers to the consistency of the test results over time
and among participants. If a student takes the same test on two different days, the results should be about the same. Additionally, two different students who perform the same on a test should receive the same scores. If tests are unreliable, no conclusions can be drawn from the results.
Testing bias occurs when the test design disadvantages certain groups
of participants. For example, cultural bias occurs when test questions
include cultural references that some students may not understand. This bias may cause these students to answer the questions incorrectly even if they possess the knowledge and skills the questions are supposed to assess.
Describe some types of formal assessments used to assess oral language and reading skills. Explain the purposes of each.
There are several types of formal assessments designed to assess readers. Some assessments assess knowledge of concepts of print. These are typically performance assessments. Students are asked to locate titles and authors’ names, identify letters and words, track the direction of print, and more. Teachers observe students and mark their responses on recording sheets containing scoring criteria. Other formal assessments ask students to identify letter names, apply phonological and phonemic awareness skills, and decode words. Portions of the DIBELS assessment are examples of this type. Data gained from these assessments can be used to group students, plan differentiated instruction, and develop interventions.
Other formal assessments evaluate students’ decoding abilities and reading fluency. Students may be asked to read short texts while being timed. They may also be asked to retell stories or answer comprehension questions. Both DIBELS and DRA are two examples of this type of assessment. State standardized tests often require students to read passages and answer comprehension questions. In addition to helping teachers group students and differentiate instruction, these assessments can also help teachers select appropriately leveled texts. There are also formal assessments that specifically assess students’ vocabulary knowledge.
Describe how written language can be formally assessed. Explain the purposes of these assessments.
Students’ writing is often formally assessed using teacher-created,
district-mandated, and state-mandated assessments. These assessments typically provide students with specific writing prompts indicating the topics and text structures they are expected to use. Sometimes prompts are based on reading passages that are also contained in the assessments. For example, students may be asked to read two related texts and write responses that explain the common theme they share.
Students’ written responses on formal assessments are usually scored
using either analytic or holistic rubrics. These rubrics should contain
clear criteria that reflect the performance expectations for students.
Common criteria include development, organization, language use,
conventions, and following the writing process. By analyzing students’
performances on different rubric criteria, teachers can plan
individualized instruction and develop interventions for struggling
students. For example, if students are struggling with language use,
teachers can help students analyze mentor texts that contain strong
examples.
Describe some types of informal assessments used to assess literacy development. Explain the purposes of each.
One type of informal assessment is miscue analysis, which occurs when
teachers listen to students as they read and analyze their miscues. By
looking for patterns in the miscues, teachers can determine which
strategies students are using and which are lacking. This information
can be used to guide instruction.
Informal reading inventories require students to read leveled texts
while teachers note errors and fluency. Students then respond to
comprehension questions about the texts. Information gained from
informal reading inventories can be used to select leveled texts, group
students, and plan appropriate instruction.
Portfolios are another type of informal assessment. Portfolios consist of
collections of student work, which can be used to show progress over
time.
Performance assessments can also be used to assess students’ literacy
development while allowing students to complete authentic tasks. For
example, students may research nutritional guidelines and read food
labels to create healthy weekly meal plans. Informal assessment can also occur when teachers observe students engaged in literacy activities, ask them to explain their thinking, and note performance on assignments and homework. These methods can provide valuable information about students’ knowledge and skills,
which can be used to guide instruction.
Describe running records, and explain their usefulness in assessing reading development.
Running records are tools used to record students’ behaviors and use
of strategies during reading. To administer running records, teachers
provide students with books in their developmental reading levels and
ask them to read the books aloud. While students are reading, teachers
record the words read correctly with check marks. They also note errors
by recording the actual words in the texts and the words students
substituted for them. Word repetitions, omissions, and self-corrections
are also noted using special symbols.
By analyzing errors, teachers can determine which cueing systems
students are consistently using. They can plan mini-lessons to encourage students to use the cueing systems they are not currently using. Teachers can also note fluency and how students track the texts.
Analyzing self-corrections can indicate whether or not students are self-monitoring their reading. Additionally, accuracy rates can be calculated.
To calculate accuracy rates, teachers first divide the number of words
read correctly by the total number of words in the texts and then
multiply the answers by 100. Accuracy rates can be used to determine if
the texts are in students’ frustration, instructional, or independent
reading levels. This assists teachers with selecting appropriate texts and
differentiating instruction to meet students’ needs.
Describe the role that performance-based assessments can play in literacy assessment. Also explain their advantages and disadvantages.
Performance-based assessments require students to solve real-world
problems and accomplish authentic tasks by applying literacy skills and
strategies. An example of a performance-based assessment is writing a
letter to a government official in support of a new law, citing evidence-based reasons for the position. Depending on the types of tasks involved, performance-based assessments may require students to synthesize information from multiple sources, defend positions with text evidence, write texts following the writing process, and create materials to convey information to others.
Performance-based assessments are open ended and do not contain
right oi- wrong answers. Typically, there are multiple ways that students
can approach the tasks. The assessments are evaluated using rubrics,
with clear criteria determined and shared with students in advance.
An advantage of performance-based assessments is that they allow
students opportunities to solve real-world problems, thereby increasing
learner engagement. They also require higher-level thinking skills, such
as analysis, application, synthesis, amid creation. Additionally, they often allow students some choices in how they present their learning. A
disadvantage is that performance-based assessments may be time
consuming to create and implement. Grading can also be subjective.
Describe the role that portfolios can play in literacy assessment and the advantages and disadvantages of their use.
Portfolios are collections of students’ projects and work gathered over
time. They can serve many purposes in assessing literacy development.
They can be used to track students’ progress over time and check for
mastery of certain skills, which is useful for planning differentiated
instruction. Portfolios can also be passed along to students’ future
teachers, helping them determine students’ instructional levels.
Additionally, portfolios can be used to help students self-evaluate their
own progress and set future goals.
If using portfolios, teachers must make several decisions. They must
determine how the portfolios will be used, which will influence the
criteria used to select portfolio entries. They also need to determine how entries will be selected. Will teachers or students select the entries, or will both play roles in the process? Teachers also need to decide if the portfolios will be graded. Checklists and rubrics are possible tools that can be used to grade portfolios.
Some advantages of portfolios include the ability to see concrete
evidence of student progress over time and the possibility of having
students actively involved in assessing their own progress. However,
evaluating portfolios is subjective, and teachers may be unsure of how to use them to guide instruction.
Explain the criteria teachers should use to determine when to respond to student miscues in reading.
Even proficient readers make errors at times. Fluent readers often read
texts rapidly and may occasionally omit or substitute words without
changing the meanings of the texts. For example, they may substitute
“her house” for “the house” in a text. These types of errors do not impact meaning and, if occasional, can be ignored. Stopping to correct these types of minor errors can interrupt fluency and comprehension.
Readers in the emergent and early stages of development may make
frequent errors and become frustrated if corrected each time.
Overcorrection may interfere with confidence and reading enjoyment.
Teachers should strategically choose which types of errors to respond to during each reading session. One approach is to focus on a single type of error each time, such as errors where syntax cues are ignored. Another approach is to intervene only when errors affect the meaning of the text. Minor errors can be ignored to build fluency and confidence.
Explain the criteria for determining if texts are at students’ frustration levels. Then describe how texts at the frustration level can be appropriately used in instruction.
When determining reading levels, teachers typically consider both
accuracy rate and comprehension. Different reading programs vary
slightly in their cutoff levels, but texts are generally considered to be at
the frustration level if they are read with less than 90% accuracy.
Additionally, responding correctly to less than 70% of comprehension
questions may indicate that texts are at students’ frustration levels.
These books are considered difficult for students to read.
Texts at the frustration level can be used in beneficial ways. Students
may enjoy exploring difficult texts on topics of interest, which may help
them develop a love of reading. Because these texts can provide valuable information that students cannot access independently, teachers can also read these texts aloud or provide digital versions with audio. Teachers can model using reading strategies with these difficult texts during shared reading experiences. Additionally, students can be
encouraged to read these texts with family members.
Explain the criteria for determining if texts are at students’ instructional reading levels. Then describe how texts at the instructional level can be appropriately used in instruction.
When determining reading levels, teachers typically consider both
accuracy rate and comprehension. Different reading programs vary
slightly in their cutoff levels, but texts are generally considered to be at
the instructional level if they are read with 90% to 94% accuracy.
Additionally, responding correctly to 70% to 89% of comprehension
questions may indicate that texts are at students’ instructional levels.
These books present some challenges for readers, but they can still be
read without frustration.
Texts at the instructional level are appropriate for use in guided reading
groups. Students are able to decode most words, yet a few miscues may occur that can be used as teaching points. Teachers may analyze student errors and use this information to plan mini-lessons. Additionally, students are able to apply comprehension strategies to analyze and discuss these texts. Texts at the instructional level allow students to have successful and positive experiences with reading while still learning from their challenges.
Explain the criteria for determining if texts are at students’ independent reading levels. Then describe how texts at the independent level can be appropriately used in instruction.
When determining reading levels, teachers typically consider both
accuracy rate and comprehension. Different reading programs vary
slightly in their cutoff levels, but texts are generally considered to be at
the independent level if they are read with 95% to 100% accuracy.
Additionally, responding correctly to 90% to 100% of comprehension
questions may indicate that texts are at students’ independent levels.
Texts at the independent reading level can be read by students with no
assistance.
Texts that students can read independently are good candidates for free choice reading time. They also can be used when practicing
comprehension strategies, such as inferring and drawing conclusions.
Because students do not struggle to decode words in these texts, they
have the mental energy available to do more complex analysis. Students can also repeatedly read favorite books at their independent reading levels for fluency practice, and they can read these books to partners or family members.
Describe some factors teachers should consider when selecting appropriate texts to support the backgrounds and interests of diverse learners.
When selecting appropriate texts to support diverse learners, teachers
should take several factors into consideration. First, they should
consider students’ reading levels and stages of reading development to
determine how much text support is needed. For emergent and early
readers, teachers should consider how much picture support is present,
how many words are printed on each page, and the predictability of the
text. They should also consider how easily students will be able to
decode the words based on spelling patterns, text clues, and use of high-frequency words.
For transitional and fluent readers, teachers should consider text
complexity. This includes the vocabulary, language use, and sentence
structure used in the texts. They should also consider how the texts
relate to students’ prior knowledge and interests and whether the
content supports learning objectives. If topics are unfamiliar to students, some scaffolding or pre-teaching may be needed.
Explain some techniques teachers can use to analyze and interpret assessment data.
Teachers can utilize multiple techniques to effectively analyze and
interpret assessment data. This typically involves creating charts and
graphs outlining different data subsets. They can list each learning
standard that was assessed, determine how many students overall
demonstrated proficiency on the standard, and identify individual
students who did not demonstrate proficiency on each standard. This
information can be used to differentiate instruction. Additionally, they
can track individual student performance and progress on each standard over time.
Teachers can take note of overall patterns and trends in assessment
data. For example, they can determine if any subgroups of students did
not meet expectations. They can consider whether the data confirms or
challenges any existing beliefs, implications this may have on
instructional planning and what, if any, conclusions can be drawn from
this data.
Analyzing and interpreting assessment data may raise new questions for educators, so they can also determine if additional data collection is
needed.
Explain how assessment data can be used to differentiate instruction for individual learners, including struggling readers, English language learners (ELLs), and on-level and proficient readers.
By analyzing and interpreting assessment data, teachers can determine
if there are any specific learning standards that need to be retaught to
their entire classes. This may be necessary if the data shows that all
students struggled in these specific areas. Teachers may consider
reteaching these standards using different methods if the initial methods were unsuccessful.
Teachers can also form groups of students who did not demonstrate
proficiency on the same learning standards. Targeted instruction can be
planned for these groups to help them make progress in these areas.
Interventions can also be planned for individual students who did not
show proficiency in certain areas, If interventions have already been in
place and have not led to increased learning outcomes, the interventions may be redesigned. If interventions have been in place and assessment data now shows proficiency, the interventions may be discontinued.
If assessment data shows that certain students have met or exceeded
expectations in certain areas, enrichment activities can be planned to
challenge these students and meet their learning needs.
Describe some characteristics of print-rich classrooms.
In early childhood classrooms, print-rich environments contain books and texts of different genres and topics, including both audio and digital texts. Walls and shelves have signs and labels to help with classroom procedures and organization. Posters display information related to content students have been studying. Reading, writing, and listening centers are available for students to explore during center time. Puppet theaters and flannel boards are present to encourage oral language and storytelling. There are also many literacy-related materials, such as letter tiles and sight word cards. Word walls are posted.
In print-rich environments, students are encouraged to share and display texts they have created. They may add their own stories to the classroom libraries or hang up signs they have made. Materials created during shared and interactive reading and writing experiences may also be displayed.
In classrooms for older students, signs and posters are displayed containing academic vocabulary, content students have been studying, and classroom procedures. Written and digital texts from a range of genres are present. There are also ample resources available for students to use to locate and share information, such as computers, tablets, dictionaries, and thesauri.
Describe some characteristics of print-rich homes.
An important component of print-rich homes is easy access to
developmentally appropriate texts in a range of genres. Although
favorite texts can be kept and reread repeatedly, children should also
have access to new and changing texts over time as their interests and
skills develop. Both digital and print-based texts are commonly found in
print-rich homes. This may include books, magazines, newspapers,
online literacy games, and digital stories.
In addition to books, print-rich homes also contain a lot of
environmental print that children can read. This may include cereal
boxes, board game directions, recipes, mail, and more. Exploring this
environmental print helps children understand different purposes for
reading and writing.
Children in print-rich homes have easy access to a variety of writing
materials, such as paper, pencils, and crayons. Computers can also be
available to type texts. Children should be encouraged to write for a
variety of purposes and audiences.
Describe how dramatic play centers can promote literacy development.
Dramatic play centers are common in early childhood classrooms. These centers allow children to act out realistic situations through play.
Examples include pretend restaurants, homes, veterinary clinics, and
grocery stores. While engaging in dramatic play, children read, write,
listen, and speak for authentic purposes.
As children role-play and interact with other children in dramatic play
centers, they develop oral language skills. They engage in conversations
and practice using language to accomplish tasks, such as ordering in
restaurants. They also listen to peers and follow directions, such as
when they are pretending to be restaurant servers.
Children also engage in reading activities in dramatic play centers.
Labels and realistic print materials can be included. For example,
pretend restaurants may include labeled cabinets and menus. Children
can practice writing through dramatic play. For example, children who
are pretending to be servers may write down orders on notepads.
Describe some ways to build literacy activities into daily routines and activities.
Teachers can plan reading, writing, listening, and speaking activities
across all subject areas. This can include a mixture of independent
literacy activities and shared and interactive reading and writing
experiences. Texts focusing on topics that are being studied in all
content areas can be accessible in the classroom. Students can also write in all subject areas. For example, they can write the processes used to solve problems in math and create travel brochures in social studies.
Teachers of early childhood and elementary students can plan morning
meetings in which daily written messages are read and discussed.
Students can share current events and topics of interest with their
classmates during these meetings, while other students listen and ask
questions.
Early childhood and elementary teachers can also incorporate oral
language and listening into daily routines. For example, they may recite
specific chants or songs during transitions.
Explain how instructional technologies can be used to create classroom environments that support literacy development.
There are many ways that instructional technologies can be used to
create classroom environments that support literacy development.
Computer programs and apps can be used to practice and assess literacy skills, and there are many options that differentiate instruction based on students’ existing skills. Many of these programs and apps also save and track students’ progress, helping both students and teachers track progress toward goals.
Projectors, document cameras, and interactive whiteboards can also be
used to magnify texts so students can follow along during instruction.
Interactive whiteboards also allow students to actively participate in
literacy activities with classmates.
Digital texts can be used to support listening development and assist
students with reading texts that are too difficult for them to read
independently. Interactive storybooks that display and track text for
emergent and beginning readers can also be used.
There are many digital tools and software options that can be used to
create forms of media such as slideshow presentations, infographics,
digital storybooks, and newsletters. Modern tools can also be used to
help students collaborate on projects, even if they are working remotely.
Describe the importance of including activities that support reading, writing, listening, and speaking development.
Reading, writing, listening, and speaking are the four main components
of English language development. All of these components are important and interdependent. They all play roles in making and conveying meaning, which are goals of literacy instruction.
These skills are sometimes practiced in isolation, such as when students
listen to audio texts without any follow-up activities. However, when
solving real-world problems, these skills are often used together. For
example, doctors must listen to their patients’ symptoms, make notes on the patients’ charts, and then explain their treatment plans. Therefore, it is important for teachers to plan activities that integrate these four skills.
Project-based learning activities and performance assessments are
useful for integrating these four skills. As an example, students could
read about the benefits of recycling. They could then speak to the school principal to recommend implementing a school-wide recycling plan, listening and responding to the principal’s concerns. They could then create posters to advertise the new program to other students.
Describe some strategies to create school environments that promote a love of reading.
Helping students develop a lifelong love of reading is an important goal
of literacy instruction. Teachers can model their own love of reading by
talking about their favorite books and authors and modeling their own
use of reading strategies. They can share stories of how reading has
positively affected their own lives and opened up new opportunities.
Teachers can also help develop communities of readers within their
classrooms, making reading a social experience. Fun and interactive
read-alouds and shared reading experiences can help create
communities of readers, along with organizing literature circles and
reader’s theater activities. Favorite books can be reread multiple times,
with students participating in the reading.
Teachers can give students frequent opportunities to read books of
choice. They can create classroom libraries containing multiple types of
texts that students can access easily. Comfortable reading spaces, such
as reading chairs and pillows, are also beneficial. Students should also
have opportunities to visit their school libraries regularly.
Additionally, teachers can guide students in completing author studies.
Students may form connections to favorite authors and seek additional
books they have written.
Describe some strategies to promote successful independent reading experiences at school.
Independent reading is beneficial for students’ reading development and is sometimes necessary when teachers are working with other students. Therefore, some strategies can be used to make independent reading experiences successful.
It is important to teach students to select appropriate texts that will not lead to boredom or frustration. Some teachers instruct students to apply the five-finger rule. In this approach, students randomly select a single page of text to read. If they struggle to decode five or more words, the book is too difficult. Other teachers inform students of their reading levels and keep labeled boxes of leveled texts available. Students can also be encouraged to maintain personal book boxes that contain several appropriate books so that they are ready for independent reading time.
To remind students of decoding and comprehension strategies they can use during independent reading time, teachers can display posters in their classrooms. Students can also be given small, personalized copies of these strategies to use.
Additionally, students can be encouraged to analyze and discuss what they have read to build interest and engagement. They can maintain reader-response logs or join literature circles with others who have read the same texts.
Describe some techniques that can be used to motivate students to read, and explain the advantages and disadvantages of each.
One technique to motivate students to read is to make reading an
enjoyable part of the daily routine. This includes designating daily time
for reading, providing a comfortable, relaxed atmosphere, helping
students select texts of interest, and showing genuine interest in
discussing the texts together. This technique is easy to implement, and
students who look forward to this reading time as children may continue reading for enjoyment in adulthood. A disadvantage is that some students may not respond to this approach.
Another technique is to use rewards and incentives for reading. Some
programs reward students after they have read a certain number of
books or for a certain number of minutes. Sometimes students are tested on the books they have read to assess comprehension. Read-athons are one example of this approach. Peer participation, competition, and opportunities to earn rewards may increase short-term motivation to read. Disadvantages include the costs of the incentives and the possibility that motivation will decrease once the rewards are removed.
Teachers frequently use a combination of these techniques by providing
daily reading time while also incorporating some incentives for reading.
Describe how family members can promote reading for authentic purposes, and explain the benefits of this approach.
Family members can help children make reading a part of everyday
activities both at home and while out in the community. Helping
children explore environmental print and its purposes is one important
step family members can take. They can point out business and road
signs while driving, for example. At home, they can help children explore environmental print like food labels, posters, and mail.
Family members can also help children understand how reading is used
to accomplish daily tasks. They can ask children to help create and read
lists at the grocery store and select meal choices from restaurant menus. While driving, they can ask children to help read road signs to determine which routes they will take. At home, they can read directions together to assemble new toys and follow recipes to prepare shared meals.
There are many benefits to reading with children for authentic
purposes; it helps children understand that reading is part of daily life
and learn that it can be used for many practical purposes. This approach also blends learning with daily life and real-world tasks, helping engage children in the learning process.
Describe some ways family members can encourage oral language development.
Parents and family members should talk to children frequently from the
moment they are born. Children learn how to use language by listening to those around them. Family members can respond to their children’s initial sounds and beginning attempts at speech by making eye contact and replying. When children begin speaking words and sentences, family members can respond by repeating what they have said and adding additional information. They can encourage children to imitate their words and actions, using games like peekaboo. Family members can talk about what they are doing and ask their children open-ended questions. They can use varied vocabulary and sentence structure in their speech.
Family members can also engage in wordplay with children. They can
read rhyming and repetitive texts, songs, and poems together,
encouraging their children to participate. Additionally, they can retell
favorite stories orally and make up stories of their own.
Describe some ways family members can promote a love of reading at home.
Family members can incorporate reading time into their children’s daily
routines to promote a love of reading at home. This can include a variety of types of reading experiences. Sometimes family members can read aloud to their children, sometimes children can read aloud to their
family members, and sometimes they can take turns reading. Each of
these experiences has its own benefits. Children benefit from hearing
their family members reading fluently and using reading strategies, and
they also benefit from practicing their own reading skills in safe
environments.
While reading together at home, families can read a mixture of new and
favorite texts. The experiences should be fun and relaxing, with
opportunities to talk about the stories and characters. They can also
listen to audio texts together at various times, such as when they are in
the car.
Children can benefit from seeing family members reading frequently and for a variety of purposes. Family members can talk about their favorite books and authors. They can also take children to the library regularly to find new books to read together.
Describe ways that teachers can promote community involvement in literacy activities.
Teachers can share information with parents about free public story
time events to promote parent involvement in community literacy
activities. These events are commonly held at public libraries and
bookstores. Teachers can also forge partnerships with their local public
libraries. They can inquire about programs that issue library cards to
students. Local librarians can be invited to visit classrooms to read aloud to students and share information about upcoming events.
Teachers can set up community volunteer programs. Community
members can be invited to visit classrooms to read with students.
Students can also potentially visit senior centers or other locations to
read to adults. Local authors and business people who use reading and
writing in their jobs can also be invited to visit classrooms to discuss the
role that literacy plays in their lives.
Additionally, teachers can encourage students to communicate with
community members for authentic purposes. For example, students can send thank-you letters to businesses that hosted field trips or sponsored school events. With parents’ permission, student work can also be displayed during community events.
Describe ways that instructional technologies can be used to promote literacy development at home.
There are many free and inexpensive online games and apps that
students of all ages can use to practice literacy skills. These include letter recognition activities, phonics skills practice, digital texts with
comprehension questions, and more. School districts that subscribe to
certain online programs may provide parents with links and passwords
so students can practice at home.
Students can also listen to digital storybooks. Online versions are
available that track the text for students and show pictures. Audio
versions can be downloaded or checked out from public libraries. Family members can listen to and discuss these stories with their children to practice comprehension strategies.
With guidance and supervision, students can communicate with others
using digital tools. They can create presentations and written texts using word processing and presentation tools. They can communicate with family members using emails, texts, and videoconferencing tools. They can also use free online tools to create and publish their own digital stories.
Describe some strategies to increase family involvement in reading development.
Teachers should communicate with caregivers frequently to increase
family involvement in reading development. They should convey to
caregivers that they are viewed as partners and assure them that they
welcome questions and concerns. Teachers should frequently
communicate positive information to caregivers in addition to sharing
reading concerns. Teachers should also recognize that different families
have different resources available, so they should try communicating
through multiple channels. This may include phone calls, texts,
classroom websites, paper newsletters, emails, and more. Teachers
should also be aware of scheduling, cultural, and linguistic differences.
Information can be sent home in multiple languages, if possible.
Teachers can share links to reading activities and strategies using
classroom websites and newsletters. They can also send home
reproducible books and texts from classroom libraries, that students can read with their families. Consumable supplies can also be sent home, such as cardstock letter tiles that can be used to practice spelling and building words.
Parent and family nights can also be scheduled to share strategies and
display student work. These events can be recorded and shared with
parents who are unable to attend.
Describe strategies teachers can use to identify students who have not met standards.
It is important to identify concerns with literacy development early to prevent future academic difficulties. Reading, writing, listening, and speaking affect performance across all content areas. Therefore, students who struggle with literacy may struggle in all academic areas.
Early screening is one way to identify students who are not meeting standards and may have literacy difficulties. Depending on the ages of the students, screening can be given on a range of topics, including alphabetic principle, phonological and phonemic awareness, decoding strategies, fluency, and comprehension.
The results of criterion and norm-referenced formal assessments can also be used to identify students who have not met standards. Teachers can look for specific skills and standard areas that students struggled with on these formal assessments. They can also look for indications that students are not meeting their adequate yearly progress goals.
Additionally, informal assessments can be used to identify students who are not meeting standards. Classroom observations, running records, responses during literature circles, and other informal assessments are helpful tools for teachers to use.
All of these data points can be considered when determining which students may benefit from targeted interventions.
Describe some factors that should be taken into consideration when determining whether students should be evaluated for reading or language delays.
Generally, teachers should collect multiple data points over time before
requesting that students be evaluated for potential delays or disabilities. Students may perform below expectations on assessments for a variety of reasons, including illness and fatigue. Therefore, no one assessment score should be used as the basis for an evaluation. However, if students perform similarly on multiple assessments over time, further investigation may be warranted. Assessment data can also be combined with classroom observations for supplementary information. Additionally, interventions can be attempted first to determine if achievement gaps can be closed through targeted instruction.
Parents sometimes request that their children be evaluated. Parents are often the first to notice potential issues because they observe their
children’s progress from year to year and witness the challenges
firsthand. Parents can submit their requests for evaluations in writing to
classroom teachers, reading specialists, administrators, or other school
officials for consideration.
Describe some components of effective literacy interventions.
Literacy interventions should be targeted to students’ individual needs and
based upon assessment data. Interventions can be delivered either
individually or in small groups, if multiple students can benefit from the
same interventions.
If commercial intervention programs are used, they should be carefully
evaluated to ensure they are research-based. Interventions should be based
upon clear objectives. They should also incorporate ways to measure
students’ progress to evaluate if the interventions are successful. Pre-tests
are commonly given when interventions are implemented, and the results
are used to set goals. Student progress is then monitored regularly to
determine if progress is being made toward the performance goals.
Research has shown that frequent interventions are more effective than
infrequent interventions, even if they occur for shorter blocks of time. For
example, teachers may conduct small-group interventions daily, for 15
minutes each time. Students need frequent opportunities to practice and
apply new skills. Interventions should include a mixture of systematic and
explicit instruction and guided practice with feedback.
Although students benefit from interventions with classroom teachers and
literacy specialists, some carefully selected computer-based interventions
may also be used.
Explain how to evaluate the effectiveness of literacy interventions.
Literacy interventions are planned for students based upon assessment
data. This initial data is used to set performance goals, and progress
toward goals is measured using progress monitoring and intervention
post-tests. If students make regular progress and achieve their
performance goals within the expected time frames, the interventions
are usually considered effective. If students make minimal or no
progress toward their goals despite receiving interventions, the
interventions may be considered ineffective, unless additional factors
are impeding success.
However, interventions must be implemented with fidelity to determine
their effectiveness. Teachers must use the agreed-upon strategies and
instructional methods and meet with students consistently according to
their intervention schedules. They must also ensure that the
interventions are not interrupted. If issues occur in these areas, lack of
student progress may not be the result of ineffective intervention
planning. The interventions may have the potential to be successful, but
the implementation and delivery methods may need improvement.
Differentiate between reading strategies and reading interventions.
Reading strategies and reading interventions are often used
interchangeably, but there are some key differences between the two.
Reading strategies are methods teachers use to help students learn
reading skills. To teach students to comprehend texts, teachers may
encourage them to make predictions and inferences. Strategies are
taught during regular classroom instruction and may be reinforced
individually or in small groups. Meeting informally with a student to
review and practice how to make predictions during one class session is
not a formal intervention as no set improvement plan, regular meeting
schedule, om. progress monitoring assessment is involved.
Interventions are specific plans to help students make progress in
targeted areas. They are based on assessment data, and they are
scheduled for regular, set periods of time. Students’ progress is
monitored through frequent assessments to look for improvement.
Reading strategies may be taught and practiced as part of formal
intervention plans.
Describe some common signs of dyslexia. Then describe some strategies teachers can use to meet the needs of students with dyslexia.
Dyslexia is a common disorder that affects reading. Students with
dyslexia often have difficulties with phonological awareness, accurate
word recognition, decoding, and reading fluency. As a result, they may
also have difficulties comprehending what they have read. Spelling may
also be affected. Teachers may notice that students struggle to decode
words and read fluently, and students may become anxious or frustrated
when asked to read. Dyslexia does not affect intelligence and is marked
by a gap between students’ abilities and achievements.
Although there is no cure for dyslexia, targeted interventions are often
successful. A multisensory approach to reading instruction is often
helpful, along with systematic and explicit instruction in reading skills
and sight word recognition. The Orton-Gillingham method is one
commonly used approach. Teachers should also maintain supportive
classroom environments and not rush students or force them to read
aloud. Students with dyslexia may also benefit from some
accommodations, such as extra time on tests, increased wait time when
responding to questions, and access to audio versions of texts.
Describe some common signs of dysgraphia. Then describe some strategies teachers can use to meet the needs of students with dysgraphia.
Dysgraphia is a disorder that affects written expression. Students with
dysgraphia may have difficulties holding pencils correctly, forming
letters, writing on lines, putting thoughts into written words, and
organizing writing in meaningful ways. Handwriting and spelling are
also commonly difficult for students. Students with dysgraphia may
become frustrated or anxious if asked to write, and they may try to avoid
writing when possible.
There are many ways teachers can assist students with dysgraphia. To
assist with spelling, explicit instruction on sound-symbol relationships
and spelling patterns may be helpful. Graphic organizers can be
provided to assist students with written organization. Additionally,
students may qualify for occupational therapy to assist with developing
coordination amid motor skills. Students with dysgraphia may also
benefit from some accommodations, such as being allowed to type
responses or answer questions orally. They may benefit from receiving
extra time to complete assignments and tests.
Describe some common signs of dyspraxia. Then describe some strategies teachers can use to meet the needs of students with dyspraxia.
Dyspraxia is a disorder that makes it difficult for the body to coordinate
movement. Students with dyspraxia may have difficulties with balance
and coordination, and they may have trouble performing tasks that
require motor skills. Students with dyspraxia may also be sensitive to
noise or touch in addition to spatial or perceptual difficulties, all of
which might affect reading and writing. Some types of dyspraxia may
also affect language, especially enunciation.
In the classroom, teachers can break large, multistep tasks into smaller
chunks. If activities require movement, teachers can begin with simple
movements first, and gradually increase the difficulty. Teachers can also
provide extra processing time when giving directions and extra wait
time when asking questions. Some students with dyspraxia may qualify
for occupational therapy services. Students with clyspraxia may benefit
from certain accommodations, such as seating that is free from noise and
distractions.
Describe some common characteristics of reading comprehension deficiencies and some strategies teachers can use to meet the needs of students with comprehension deficiencies.
Students with reading comprehension deficiencies have difficulty
understanding and responding to what they have read. They may have
difficulty summarizing texts, making inferences, differentiating between
main ideas and supporting details, and more. They often have issues
with reading fluency as well, especially with phrasing and prosody.
Students with comprehension deficiencies can often decode words
efficiently, yet they struggle with comprehending the texts’ meanings.
However, some students may struggle with both decoding and
comprehension.
To assist students with comprehension deficiencies, teachers can
provide advance organizers that offer overviews of the text structures
and story events. They can also preview texts or conduct picture walks
to familiarize students with the topics. Before reading, they can instruct
students to pay attention to specific key information within the texts.
Additionally, teachers can model their use of comprehension strategies
during think-alouds and shared reading experiences.
Describe some common characteristics of reading retention deficiencies and some strategies teachers can use to meet the needs of students with retention deficiencies.
Students with reading retention deficiencies have difficulties
remembering what they have read. This may include difficulties
summarizing texts, ordering story events, and making text connections
after reading. Retention deficiencies may occur due to difficulties
transferring information to short- or long-term memory or with
difficulties retrieving information that has been previously stored in
long-term memory.
To assist students with retention difficulties, teachers can provide
students with graphic organizers that they can complete while reading.
Story maps and sequencing charts are examples of graphic organizers
that may be helpful. Teachers can also provide notes and text summaries
to assist students with remembering important conceits and details.
Additionally, students can be taught to use specific strategies to activate
memory, such as visualizing as they read. They can also be taught to
annotate texts by highlighting key phrases and taking notes, making it
easier to locate important information in the future.
Explain the role that social context plays in language development and usage. Describe the implications it has on classroom teaching.
Members of a group have a shared social identity that is formed by
reading, writing, listening, and speaking with one another. Group
members develop common expressions, mannerisms, and favorite
stories that are understood by other members. For example, members of
a professional group may use academic language specific to their field at
conferences and work events. However, they will not likely use these
terms while talking with people outside the field.
Additionally, social context plays a role in how people select the
appropriate language to use. When asking a stranger for directions, a
person would likely consider social norms and begin with an expression
like “Excuse me.” When talking with a good friend on the phone, a
person might use an informal, joking tone. It is important for people to
consider each situation and determine which approach to use.
Teachers can provide frequent opportunities for students to
communicate with others for a variety of authentic purposes. This can
include communicating with classmates, other students and adults
within the school, family members, and community members.
Explain the role that cultural context plays in language development and use. Describe the implications it has on classroom teaching.
Language involves not only the words people say but also the ways in
which these words are interpreted by recipients. Differing backgrounds
and cultures can affect how messages are received, so it is important for
people to consider that others may view communications differently.
For example, in some cultures, students are encouraged to ask questions
and initiate discussions in class. In others, students are expected to defer
to their instructors and not speak unless they are directly questioned. A
student who tells an instructor that something doesn’t make sense may
be praised for using metacognitive strategies in one class while
perceived as being rude in another.
Cultural context also affects how nonverbal communications are
interpreted. For example, different cultures have their own norms about
making eye contact while speaking or the use of gestures during
greetings.
Teachers should be sensitive to these cultural differences and consider
the roles they may play in student participation and communication.
Additionally, teachers should help students view situations from
multiple perspectives and consider how their attempts at
communication may be perceived by others in various situations.
Explain the interdependent relationship between culture and language. Describe the implications this relationship has on English language instruction.
The ways that people use language and interpret language directed
toward them is related to their cultures. Additionally, as cultures change
over time, so do languages. Existing words can take on new meanings,
and new words may be added to languages. These changes sometimes
occur as a result of popular culture, including television, video games,
and music. As people with different cultural backgrounds interact, they
must negotiate these differences to make meaning.
Because culture and language are so intertwined, understanding the
cultural contexts in which language is used is an important part of
learning any new language. English language learners should be taught
English skills in context, helping them understand how the language is
used in realistic social interactions. Additionally, it is important for
teachers to understand the cultural backgrounds of ELLs and the roles
their cultures may play in their language interactions and expectations.
Teachers should incorporate a variety of teaching strategies and
methods into their classrooms to meet the needs of all students.
Describe some characteristics of advanced readers.
Advanced readers can display many different characteristics. They are
sometimes identified by above-average scores on standardized reading
assessments. Other times, observed reading behaviors and
performances on classroom assignments can provide clues.
Advanced readers typically read fluently and have strong word
recognition and decoding abilities. They are also able to flexibly apply a
variety of reading strategies to figure out unknown words and meanings.
Advanced readers may also have well-developed vocabularies and
incorporate varied words into their speech and writing. They may show
a strong interest in reading and get deeply immersed in the texts they
have selected. Advanced readers often love to talk with others about the
books they have read, and they may make connections between the texts
and themselves, other texts, and real-world events. Additionally, they
are often able to analyze texts using high-level comprehension skills,
such as evaluating and drawing conclusions.
Explain how collaborative learning opportunities can help challenge and engage high-achieving readers.
High-achieving readers can often benefit from participating in
collaborative, project-based learning opportunities that allow them to
apply higher-level reading and writing skills with others. Collaborative
projects draw upon the strengths and unique problem-solving abilities
of all group members and allow high-achieving readers to work with
others to solve realistic problems. The projects allow students to share
ideas and receive feedback from others of all skill levels, including other
high-achieving students who may enjoy analyzing and discussing the
same types of complex texts that they do.
High-achieving readers can benefit from forming collaborative
relationships with teachers. They can be taught to use metacognitive
strategies to self-monitor their own reading and set realistic but
challenging goals for their own reading and writing development. They
can collaborate with teachers to select literacy projects that pertain to
their interests. This involvement in the learning process can help high-achieving
readers stay interested and engaged in literacy instruction.
Explain how open-ended assignments and project choices can help challenge and engage high-achieving readers.
High-achieving readers often benefit from having some choices about what
and how they learn. This can include choices about the types and topics of
texts they explore. For example, if classes are learning about persuasive
writing, students may choose the texts they will analyze from a range of
genres and topics.
Students can also have some choices about the complexity of the projects
they complete, with options to delve deeper into topics if desired. For
example, if students in a class are identifying characteristics of fairy tales,
some students may choose to compare and contrast multiple versions of the
same tale and note identifying features.
High-achieving readers may also benefit from having choices about the
formats of their projects. Possible project ideas include creating multimedia
presentations, writing alternative endings to texts, creating three-dimensional
artistic representations of story events, and more. These
options also accommodate different learning modalities. Teachers may
create a menu of options for students to choose from or encourage them to
come up with their own ideas.
Although students maybe directing some of their own learning, teachers
should still conference with high-achieving readers frequently to assess
progress and collaborate on ideas.
Explain some common issues and frustrations high-achieving readers face in the classroom, and describe the implications of these issues for classroom teachers.
High-achieving readers are sometimes required to read the same texts as the
other students in their classes during reading instruction and in other
content areas. Because these texts are often designed for on-level readers,
they may be easy for high-achieving readers to decode and comprehend.
Without any challenges in the texts, high-achieving readers may finish
quickly and possibly become bored.
High-achieving readers are also sometimes given extra work to complete
when they finish their on-level work early. They may view this extra work as
a punishment, and the new work may not be challenging for these students
either. Boredom and frustration may then occur.
Additionally, high-achieving readers may become bored during whole-class
lessons on concepts they have already mastered. For example, readers who
are successfully decoding complex multisyllabic words will likely become
bored during lessons on CVCe spelling patterns.
These high-achieving readers may sometimes appear disengaged, resist
coming to school, or have behavior issues within the classroom. To prevent
these issues from occurring, teachers can differentiate instruction and
provide high-achieving readers with opportunities to read texts within their
instructional levels. These students can also be encouraged to complete
alternate assignments that are more challenging.
Describe ways that reading specialists commonly support classroom teachers.
Reading specialists often play a variety of roles within their schools.
Some reading specialists serve as intervention teachers. These
specialists directly provide targeted intervention services to students
who are struggling with reading, often in areas including phonemic
awareness, decoding, sight word recognition, and comprehension. They
may go into students’ classrooms to provide intervention services, or
they may pull students out for a set number of minutes each week.
Reading specialists can also provide professional development
opportunities for classroom teachers. In small or large-group sessions,
they often model how to use instructional strategies that are supported
by research. They compile literature and resources related to literacy
instruction and make these resources available to teachers. They may
also work with individual teachers to develop instructional plans or
overcome difficulties with literacy instruction.
Reading specialists may also oversee standardized literacy assessments
for their schools and train teachers in testing procedures. They work
with teachers to analyze assessment data, track students’ progress over
time, and use the results to plan or change appropriate interventions.
Describe some common professional development opportunities that reading specialists may offer to classroom teachers.
Reading specialists provide professional development opportunities for
teachers on a wide range of topics. For early childhood teachers, reading
specialists may offer training about modeling concepts of print, planning
phonological and phonemic awareness activities, creating print-rich
environments, and designing effective literacy centers. Other topics may
include types of reading and writing experiences and using multisensory
approaches to reading and writing instruction.
Professional development for elementary teachers may include topics such
as incorporating reading and writing across content areas, using interactive
word walls, using assessment data to guide instruction, modeling
comprehension strategies, and designing effective literature circles.
For middle and high school teachers, professional development topics may
include teaching academic vocabulary, incorporating reading and writing
across content areas, teaching text structures, and using higher-level
comprehension strategies.
Reading specialists may also provide professional development
opportunities on specialized topics, such as meeting the needs of students
with disabilities and teaching reading strategies to ELLs.
Describe leveled book rooms, and explain some strategies reading specialists can use to implement them successfully.
Leveled boolc rooms are consolidated collections of leveled readers that
can be checked out by all teachers within a school. Reading specialists
often help organize and maintain leveled book rooms as part of their
responsibilities. Because teachers frequently have students who read
both well above and well below grade level, these types of book rooms
ensure that all students have access to books within their instructional
reading levels.
To implement successful leveled book rooms, books should be clearly
organized and labeled according to level. The same leveling system used
by classroom teachers should be used in the leveled book rooms for
consistency. Books may also be organized in additional ways, such as by
genre, topic, or author. Teachers should be taught the procedures for
checking out and returning books. Records should be maintained in
order to keep track of where all books are located.
Describe ways reading specialists can promote the goals of their schools’ reading programs to parents and family members.
Although it is common for classroom teachers to communicate with
family members about reading development, reading specialists also
play important roles in promoting literacy at home. Reading specialists
may conduct family surveys to learn more about home literacy
behaviors and to assess parents’ literacy-related needs and concerns.
They may help organize school- or district-wide family literacy events.
These events offer hands-on literacy activities appropriate for different
grade levels that family members can complete with their children and
take home for additional practice. They also feature interactive read-alouds
that model ways parents can encourage reading behaviors with
their children at home.
Additionally, reading specialists might be involved in organizing book
fairs or lending libraries that supplement their schools’ traditional
libraries. They may provide families with information about reading
goals and interventions or summer reading programs.
Describe some ways reading specialists can promote collaboration among teachers and other colleagues, and explain some benefits of using a collaborative approach to planning.
One role of a reading specialist is to promote collaboration among
colleagues. A collaborative approach allows colleagues to develop and
work toward shared goals. It can increase motivation to implement
reading programs with fidelity and help colleagues share strategies to
address common problems and concerns.
In addition to attending staff meetings, reading specialists can attend
grade-level team meetings. Reading specialists can help grade-level
teams analyze assessment data to identify areas in need of
improvement. Together, the teams can create performance goals that
will be used to drive reading instruction. They can collaboratively
develop instructional plans and activities to help reach the shared goals.
This type of collaborative approach can encourage motivation and
accountability.
Reading specialists may also look for each colleague’s strengths and note
strong examples of research-based reading instruction. They can
encourage these colleagues to share their strategies and allow others to
observe their teaching. Teachers may also be encouraged to share
problems they are having with reading instruction, and colleagues can
work together to develop solutions to these problems.
Describe the role that reading specialists can play in improving their schools’ reading curricula.
Reading specialists typically have access to assessment data from
multiple grade levels and time periods. They can lead data analysis
teams that look for trends that may indicate gaps in their schools’
reading curricula. Once these gaps are identified, reading specialists can
work with teachers to revise curricula and instructional methods to
better address these needs and improve student performance. Reading
specialists often also serve on committees to evaluate and select
potential reading programs to supplement or replace existing ones.
Reading specialists can share their knowledge of research-based
approaches to literacy instruction and use this knowledge to evaluate
the potential reading programs.
Reading specialists also identify external professional development
opportunities that may be beneficial for teachers based on their schools’
instructional gaps. They advocate for opportunities for teachers to
attend these sessions and share what they have learned with colleagues.
Additionally, reading specialists can recruit teachers who are willing to
apply and model specific research-based instructional strategies while
receiving coaching and support. For example, reading specialists can
recruit teachers willing to try interactive word walls or literature circles.
Describe techniques reading specialists can use to build consensus among colleagues when making instructional decisions.
Reading specialists often deal with conflict in their roles. Conflict may
occur when introducing new reading programs or helping teachers
decide upon new instructional strategies and goals. One role of a reading
specialist is to help establish a consensus among the different
stakeholders involved, including teachers, administrators, board
members, and other school staff.
To do so, reading specialists need to be seen as leaders who are
respected in their area of expertise but also flexible and willing to listen
to new ideas. By listening to suggestions and concerns while also
explaining literacy-related research and best practices, reading
specialists can help their teams develop shared visions for school
reading instruction. They can help other stakeholders understand their
roles in achieving these visions by outlining specific but attainable goals
and defining the responsibilities of everyone involved. Other
stakeholders will be more likely to cooperate with the plans if they
understand the role they will play in accomplishing the shared goals.
Describe techniques reading specialists can use to resolve conflict among colleagues regarding reading instruction.
Instructional decisions have lasting effects on teachers and students.
This is especially true when major decisions are made, such as selecting
new reading programs. Conflict about instructional strategies and ways
to implement change can lead to interpersonal conflict. Therefore,
reading specialists who are facilitating these changes must often assist
with conflict resolution.
Reading specialists can first acknowledge the issues rather than ignore
them, recognizing that conflict can be healthy when it leads to open
discussions and sharing of ideas. They can then look for the root causes
of the conflict. Although the conflicts may be based on personality
differences, they may also be based on other issues, such as concerns
about adequate time or resources and differing prior experiences.
Helping highlight the true issues may lead to discussions about how the
concerns can be alleviated.
Reading specialists can also bring the discussions back to shared
performance goals. Colleagues can be asked to restate the shared goals
and the reasons behind them, reminding everyone involved that student
success is the focus. Colleagues can then collaborate to find solutions
that incorporate the ideas while still addressing the concerns of all
parties involved.
Describe ways reading specialists can advocate for public support of reading education, including influencing policy decisions.
It is important for reading specialists to be aware of policies that affect
literacy education at the local, state, and national levels. This includes
awareness of school board, state government, and US Department of
Education policies. Attending local school board meetings and joining
professional organizations that track impending legislation are two
ways to assist with this goal. Reading specialists can share their
knowledge with colleagues and community members and advocate for
legislation and policies that support effective reading instruction.
Additionally, they can interpret existing legislation for their colleagues
and ensure that they understand the implications it has on their
classroom instruction.
Reading specialists can assist their school districts with writing grants
and educational proposals that can positively impact literacy instruction.
This may include proposals for funding that can be used to purchase
new materials or hire additional reading specialists.
Briefly describe the history of reading education in America.
In colonial and early America, reading education focused on memorization.
Students were expected to memorize the alphabet, syllables, words, verses,
and poems. The poems and verses were recited in front of others for fluency
practice.
In the 1800s, a more systematic approach to reading instruction was
introduced. This included systematic phonics, sight word instruction, and
reading across content areas. McGuffey Readers were a series of leveled
primers commonly used for reading instruction. In the late 1800s, the idea of
reading for meaning began to be promoted.
In the early 1900s, the focus continued to be on reading for meaning and
purpose. Explicit and systematic phonics instruction was common. In the
mid-1900s, basal readers became commonplace in schools. Basal readers
contained leveled stories that were followed by comprehension questions,
with separate phonics skill and drill activities.
In the 1980s, whole language was promoted. Proponents believed children
would learn to read by being immersed in reading and writing experiences
rather than using explicit phonics instruction. By the niid-1990s, a balanced
approach to literacy instruction was common. Balanced literacy includes a
combination of explicit and systematic phonics instruction and immersion in
authentic reading and writing experiences.
Describe how literacy instruction has evolved over the years, and explain some current beliefs about best practices in literacy education.
Beliefs about the best ways to teach reading have evolved over the years.
It was once believed that children are passive receivers of knowledge,
and memorization and skill-and-drill approaches to reading instruction
were common. Later, theorists suggested that children are active
learners who construct their own meaning through scaffolded problem-solving.
Literacy instruction transitioned to focusing on reading and
writing for authentic purposes.
Current research supports the idea that students are actively involved in
the learning process. They should have opportunities to read and write
for authentic purposes while also receiving systematic and explicit
phonics instruction. Research also indicates that although children
progress through typical stages of literacy development, learning is an
individualized process. Differing prior knowledge and learning styles
can affect the paths children take to becoming proficient readers and
writers. Assessment is viewed as an important tool for helping ensure
that learning is differentiated and individual student needs are met.
Additionally, research indicates that language and literacy development
have social components, and students benefit from opportunities to
interact and collaborate with others for a variety of authentic purposes.
Describe some important tenets of behaviorism, and explain the role behaviorism may play in reading instruction.
The theory of behaviorism was shaped by several individuals, including
Ivan Pavlov and B. F. Skinner. Popular in the early to mid-1900s, it centers
around the belief that learners respond to external stimuli. If behaviors are
reinforced, they will continue. Reinforcement maybe positive, which occurs
when stimuli are added after desired behaviors are demonstrated. Rewards
and praise for completing assignments are examples of positive
reinforcement. Reinforcement may also be negative, which occurs when
stimuli are removed after desired behaviors are demonstrated. When
teachers stop giving stern reminders to students after they begin their
independent reading, negative reinforcement has occurred.
According to behaviorism, punishments are used to decrease undesirable
behaviors. Taking away manipulatives from students who are misusing them
is an example of using punishment to decrease undesirable behaviors.
Learning theory has evolved over time, and research now indicates that
students are more actively involved in constructing meaning than suggested
by behaviorism. Yet some tenets can still be applied to reading instruction.
Teachers should be careful not to criticize or punish students for errors
made during reading. Effort and use of reading strategies should be
supported and encouraged.
Describe some important tenets of cognitivism, and explain the role cognitivism may play in reading instruction.
Cognitivism became popular in the 1960s after the rise of behaviorism.
Rather than believing that children are passive receivers of knowledge,
cognitivism argued that there are many internal processes that affect
learning. When students are confronted with new information, they
attempt to make sense of it based on prior knowledge and other factors.
Information that catches students’ attention may proceed from sensory
memory to short-term memory, where it must be processed and
encoded to be transferred to long-term memory.
Cognitivism has many implications for reading instruction. Teachers
should remember that learning to read is an active process. To facilitate
memory transfer, students should have prior knowledge activated
before reading. Attention must also be drawn to key information. This
may be done using advance organizers, bolded text, or other cueing
techniques. Information should also be broken into manageable chunks,
and students should have opportunities to repeatedly practice new
knowledge and skills. If too much information is presented at once,
cognitive overload may occur. If students do not have opportunities to
practice newly learned knowledge or skills, it may be forgotten.
Teachers should ensure that they allow adequate opportunities for
guided practice and feedback.
Explain Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
Piaget’s theory suggests that all children go through the same four stages of
cognitive development, yet the rate at which they proceed through the stages
may vary somewhat.
From birth until about two years of age, children are in the sensorimotor
stage. Children in this stage explore the world around them using their
senses, including grabbing and chewing objects. At first, children’s behaviors
are caused by reflexes. Gradually, they learn that their behaviors can
influence their environments, and they begin experimenting with different
behaviors. They learn object permanence, meaning they understand that
things still exist even when they are not visible.
The preoperational stage lasts from age two until about age seven. In this
stage, children begin thinking symbolically. They engage in symbolic play
and begin using words to represent what they want. Children in this stage
are egocentric and have trouble seeing other people’s perspectives.
The concrete operational stage lasts from age seven until about age twelve.
In this stage, children begin to think logically but may still struggle with
abstract ideas. They begin becoming less egocentric.
In the formal operational stage, which begins around age 12 and continues
into adulthood, people are capable of abstract and logical thoughts.
Describe how Piaget’s theory of cognitive development can be applied to reading instruction for children in stages of development.
Young children in the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development
benefit from exploring types of books designed for this age group. This
includes board books and cloth books containing different textures and
materials to manipulate. By exploring these books using their senses,
children will enjoy their first reading experiences.
Children in the preoperational stage begin to think symbolically. The
alphabetic principle can be explored in this stage. Children can also
explore the purposes of punctuation marks and illustrations included in
texts. They can explore using different types of texts to accomplish
different purposes, such as writing letters to communicate with friends.
Children in the concrete operational stage begin to think logically.
Students in this stage can explore literary elements and text structures.
They can also analyze texts deeply and comprehend relationships like
cause and effect.
By the formal operational stage, students should be reading and
analyzing a variety of complex texts for personal and academic reasons.
Describe schema theory, and explain the implications it has on reading instruction.
Schema theory suggests that when people learn new concepts, the new
knowledge gets organized into units called schemata. These schemata
include all of the information that is known about the concepts. For
example, a young child’s schema about cars might include knowing that
they are used for transportation, they have four wheels and one steering
wheel, and they are painted a variety of colors. These schemata are
connected to one another when knowledge overlaps. For example, the
child’s schema about cars may be connected to his or her schema about
motorcycles, which the child knows also have wheels and are used for
transportation. When encountering new information, people look to
existing schemata to make sense of the new knowledge.
Schema theory has several implications for reading instruction, It
demonstrates the importance of activating prior knowledge before
reading. Students can be asked what they already know about the topics
of new texts. They can also complete know, want, and learn (KWL)
charts to identify, what they already know and want to learn about the
topics. Additionally, students can be encouraged to make text
connections. This may include text-to-self, text-to-text, and text-to-world
connections.
Define assimilation and accommodation with regard to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Explain the implications of assimilation and accommodation on reading instruction.
According to Piaget, people have existing schemata, or units of
knowledge, about concepts they have learned. They look to these
existing schemata to make sense of new information they encounter.
Sometimes the newly encountered information fits within an existing
schema and is added to it. For example, if a student has an existing
schema about baseball and learns a new rule he or she did not
previously know, he or she may add this new information to the schema.
This is known as assimilation. However, sometimes the newly
encountered information challenges the existing schema. If this occurs,
the existing schema must be altered. For example, a student may have an
existing schema about a historical figure based on readings he or she has
done from one person’s perspective. Based on these prior readings, he
or she may view the figure as a hero. However, the student may then
read a book about the figure written from a different perspective, which
highlights the negative impacts of the figure’s actions on others. This
new knowledge may challenge the student’s existing schema and cause
him or her to alter it. This is known as accommodation.
Teachers should model and encourage evaluating texts and consider
how they affirm or challenge existing beliefs.
Describe some important tenets of Lev Vygotsky’s social development theory, and explain the role this theory plays in reading instruction.
Lev Vygotsky played a leading role in the development of the
constructivist learning theory. According to Vygotsky, children
interact in social and cultural contexts. Through their social interactions
with others in these contexts, cognitive development takes place.
Therefore, social interaction plays a large role in learning. Teachers can
consider how to incorporate social learning experiences into reading
instruction. This may include shared and interactive reading and writing
experiences, collaborative projects, reader’s theater, and literature
circles.
Vygotsky also suggested that learning takes place when students are
engaged in activities in their zones of proximal development. These are
activities that students are almost able to complete independently, but
they require some scaffolding or collaboration. Vygotsky explained that
scaffolding should be provided by others who have higher abilities in the
tasks being completed. These individuals might be teachers, parents, or
other classmates. Teachers can differentiate learning activities to ensure
they are within students’ zones of proximal development rather than
being too easy or too difficult. For example, they can select hooks in
students’ instructional reading levels for guided reading groups.
Teachers can use assessments to determine how to differentiate
instruction for each student.
Describe some important tenets of constructivism, and explain the role constructivism may play in reading instruction.
The constructivist theory was influenced by several people, including
John Dewey, Jean Piaget, and Lev Vygotsky. Constructivism suggests
that learning is an active process. Rather than passively receiving
knowledge from their teachers, students actively construct their own
meaning through learning experiences. Meaning may differ among
individual students because they each have unique prior knowledge and
experiences. According to constructivism, students learn by solving real-world
problems; gathering, synthesizing, and evaluating information;
and testing ideas.
Constructivism plays an important role in reading instruction. When
analyzing texts, teachers can encourage students to draw upon prior
knowledge, consider if any existing assumptions have been challenged,
and share their unique understandings with others. Teachers can also
encourage students to use reading to solve realistic problems through
problem-based learning activities. They can also give students some
choices regarding the activities and methods used. Rather than directing
all phases of assignments, teachers can instead use more collaborative
approaches and provide scaffolding to students as needed.
Describe Marie Clay’s literacy processing theory, and explain the role it plays in reading instruction.
Marie Clay’s literacy processing theory has many underlying tenets. It
suggests that all children approach learning to read with different
background knowledge and experiences, which results in students
taking different paths to becoming proficient readers and writers. It also
suggests that reading and writing are complex and interrelated
experiences, and children must read and write authentic texts to learn.
Additionally, it suggests that learning to read and write are active
processes, and children help create their own meanings.
Early childhood teachers should consider that all students have unique
prior knowledge and experiences. They can assess students’ skills and
build upon their existing strengths. Additionally, if students are
struggling with specific literacy skills, interventions can be implemented
to address students’ needs. Marie Clay promoted running records as one
tool that can be used to identify strategy deficits and plan interventions.
Teachers can also give students frequent opportunities to read amid write
authentic texts in addition to phonics instruction. Additionally, they can
use these texts to model and teach concepts of print and decoding and
comprehension strategies.
Describe John Dewey’s contributions to theories of reading instruction.
John Dewey greatly influenced the constructivist theory of education.
Dewey believed that people are active learners who learn by doing
rather than passively receiving knowledge. He believed that valuable
instructional time is wasted in schools by attempts to passively transmit
knowledge. Additionally, he believed that for the teaching of symbolic
concepts to be effective, students need opportunities to explore the
symbols in context.
Dewey’s beliefs have shaped the way reading instruction occurs today.
Students are expected to be active learners who complete word work
activities, problem-solve to decode and encode texts, and critically
analyze a variety of text types. Children are commonly engaged in
guided reading groups in which they must apply strategies to decode
and comprehend real stories. They are also asked to construct their own
meaning from texts by activating prior knowledge and making personal
connections. When teaching symbolic relationships like the alphabetic
principle, students are given opportunities to explore these
relationships using real words and texts.
Describe David Perkins’ Theory of Learnable Intelligence, and explain the implications it has on reading instruction.
David Perkins theorized that humans have three types of intelligence.
Neural intelligence is determined by genetics and cannot be changed. It
is sometimes measured using IQ tests. Experiential intelligence is
developed by the types of experiences one has. For example, a child who
grows up in a big city may have knowledge of how to read subway maps
and bus schedules. Having diverse experiences increases experiential
intelligence. Reflective intelligence refers to a person’s ability to
problem-solve and reason. It also involves self-awareness and the use of
metacognitive strategies. Unlike neural intelligence, experiential and
reflective intelligence can be grown and developed over time.
Teachers can consider this theory when planning reading instruction.
They can create literacy-rich environments using varied activities and
types of texts. These varied experiences can help students develop
experiential knowledge. Print, digital texts, and media can be used to
help students experience things that are distant from their own
communities. Teachers can also model and encourage the use of
metacognitive and problem-solving strategies.
Describe Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences, and explain the implications it has on reading instruction.
Howard Gardner theorized that there are multiple types of intelligences.
According to his theory, people have different strengths and prefer to
represent knowledge in different ways. He outlined eight different types of
intelligences. Visual-spatial intelligence includes the ability to visualize
things easily, such as charts and maps. Linguistic-verbal intelligence refers
to strength in using language for reading, writing, listening, and speaking.
Logical-mathematical intelligence refers to the ability to reason, solve
problems, and recognize patterns, often with numbers. Bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence refers to skilled coordination and movement. Musical
intelligence refers to the ability to recognize rhythm, sound, beat, and other
musical elements. Interpersonal intelligence refers to the ability to interact
effectively with others. Intrapersonal intelligence refers to strong self-awareness.
Naturalistic intelligence refers to a strong understanding of
nature. Gardner explained that each person may demonstrate characteristics
of multiple types of intelligence.
Teachers can consider Gardner’s theory when planning instruction. They can
use a multisensory approach to literacy instruction and also incorporate
music, art, movement, problem-solving, collaboration, and other
experiences. They can allow students choices in the topics they read and
write about and allow them to present their learning in different ways.
Describe Louise Rosenblatt’s Transactional Theory of the Literary Work and the implications it has on reading instruction.
Rosenblatt’s Transactional Theory of the Literary Work suggests that
reading involves a transaction between the reader and the text. Each
reader brings unique prior knowledge and experiences to the reading
experience. These differences affect how the text is interpreted and the
meaning that is made. Different readers may make different meaning
from the same texts. Therefore, there is no one fixed meaning in any text.
Instead, the meaning is determined by the reader’s transaction with the
text.
This theory suggests that readers must be active participants in the
reading process to make meaning. For example, they should be
encouraged to activate prior knowledge, self-monitor understanding,
and make connections before, during, and after reading. They should be
encouraged to analyze texts deeply, and the close reading process may
assist with this goal. Because different students may interpret texts
differently, literature circles and other opportunities to discuss meaning
can be beneficial. Students can be encouraged to share what prior
experiences and text clues helped guide their interpretations.
Describe Kenneth Goodman’s socio-psycholinguistic theory of reading instruction, and explain the implications it has on reading instruction.
Kenneth Goodman explained that reading involves the interaction
between thinking and language. Beginning readers do not approach new
texts already knowing how to read all of the words. Instead, they
combine their thinking with available language clues to guess what the
words say. By analyzing what readers guess and the errors that they
make, teachers can gain insights into students’ thinking and the cues
they are using. They can identify if students are using or ignoring the
graphophonic, syntactic, and semantic cueing systems. Goodman also
explained that teachers should observe students’ reading behaviors to
gain further insight into the reasons for their miscues. For example,
teachers must determine if the errors are made due to lack of
knowledge, such as not knowing how to decode certain consonant
blends, or carelessness, such as reading too quickly.
The socio-psycholinguistic theory supports the use of running records
to record reading behaviors and miscues. The results of the running
records can be used to provide targeted instruction in using specific
cueing systems.
Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative research, and explain the uses of each.
Qualitative research is usually used to gather subjective information
about people’s opinions or understandings about things. Qualitative
research can often be used to answer the questions what and why.
Information may be gathered through focus groups, interviews, and
observations. Researchers gather information in a neutral manner to
ensure they do not influence the opinions of the subjects. Qualitative
research could be used to determine reasons why teachers have
abandoned a particular reading program, for example. This information
could be used to revise the program to better meet teachers’ needs and
address concerns.
Quantitative research is used to gather numerical data that can be used
to identify patterns and relationships. It can also be used to form
generalizations and draw conclusions. For example, quantitative
research could be used to identify if specific literacy interventions are
leading to increased standardized test scores.
Describe some characteristics of valid reading research.
With the ease with which people are able to post things on the Internet,
abundant and often contradictory information about best practices in
education can be found. Much of this information is not reliably tested.
However, there are some characteristics that identify valid reading
research, which teachers should use when making instructional
decisions.
Reading research should be reliable. This means that other researchers
should be able to replicate the research studies and get the same results.
Research that relies on qualitative responses are more subjective and
may be less lilcely to be replicated with the same results. This reliability
should be taken into consideration when evaluating research. Reading
research should also be valid, meaning the instruments should be
designed to measure what they are supposed to measure. The research
should also be credible. This means the research uses appropriate
methodology, data collection, and analysis.
Describe some sources of valid reading research.
There are many sources of valid reading research available. This
research is sometimes available for free. Other times, paid subscriptions
or enrollment in academic institutions is required to access the
information.
The U.S. Department of Education provides information about reading
research and statistics on its website. This includes information related
to current reading programs, literacy progress, and more.
There are also many education-related journals that contain information
about reading research. Peer-reviewed journals help ensure that the
research is reliable and valid. Examples include Language Arts,
published by the National Council of Teachers of English, and the
Harvard Educational Review, published by the Harvard Graduate School
of Education. Many of these journals are available online and are
sometimes also available in print form.
There are also multiple databases containing reading research. One
example is the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC). These
databases are available online and are also commonly available in the
libraries of educational institutions.
Describe some personality types identified by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator that may affect how students learn and interact with others.
There are many different theories of personality that attempt to explain
differences in the ways people perceive the world and interact with
those around them. One common tool to assess personality type is the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Based on Carl Jung’s personality theory,
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator outlines four different scales that
affect personality.
The first scale ranges from introversion to extroversion. Introverts gain
energy from time alone and quiet reflection, whereas extroverts gain
energy from interacting with others. The second scale ranges from
sensing to intuition. People on the sensing side of the scale learn from
interacting with their senses, whereas people on the intuition side rely
on instincts. The third scale ranges from thinking to feeling. People on
the thinking side apply logic and questioning to make decisions,
whereas people on the feeling side rely more on their emotions and
values. The fourth scale ranges from judging to perceiving. People on the
judging side of the scale prefer routine and order, whereas those on the
perceiving side prefer a more laid-back approach.
Explain how personality types may affect literacy instruction.
Teachers should consider the role that personality types play in how
students learn and interact with others. Information observed about
students’ personality types can help teachers plan differentiated instruction
that meets the needs of all students.
Classes typically include students on a range of the introversion-extroversion
scale. Students who are more introverted may not enjoy
reading instruction if they are continually asked to read aloud or perform in
groups. However, students who are more extroverted may not enjoy reading
instruction if only given opportunities to read independently and complete
individual assignments.
Additionally, some students think logically and may instinctively turn to text
evidence for support of answers. They may have more difficulties
responding personally to texts. On the other hand, students who rely more
on feeling may respond to texts emotionally yet need encouragement to
support answers with evidence.
Personality type can also affect how students perceive classroom routines
and procedures. Some students may prefer detailed routines for reading
groups and centers, whereas others may prefer more laid-back approaches.
Being aware of students’ personalities can help teachers plan a mixture of
activity types and give students the support they need to succeed, in
situations outside of their comfort zones.
Describe some common learning behaviors, and explain how they support literacy development.
There are several learning behaviors applicable to all subject areas
that support literacy learning. Some of these behaviors include following
oral and written directions, interacting appropriately with other
learners, displaying curiosity and asking questions, attempting to solve
complex problems, reasoning, and focusing on learning tasks. These
learning behaviors support literacy development by encouraging
students to seek information to answer questions and solve realistic
problems. They also support the collaboration needed to participate in
shared problem-based learning activities and analysis of texts in
literature circles. Focus on learning tasks also helps students develop
reading stamina and the ability to complete literacy-related projects.
Additionally, students who attempt to reason independently may find it
easier to comprehend complex texts without assistance.
Age-appropriate reading, writing, listening, and speaking behaviors also
help students convey and understand meaning. These behaviors include
listening purposefully, organizing thoughts before writing and speaking,
and monitoring understanding.
Describe Bloom’s Taxonomy, and explain the role it plays in literacy instruction.
Benjamin Bloom outlined a hierarchy of skills in each of three learning
domains, including the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.
The domain most often applied to classroom instruction is the cognitive
domain. In the cognitive domain, skills are ranked in the following
order: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation. Knowledge is the lowest-level skill, whereas evaluation is the
highest.
Reading specialists and classroom teachers should consider Bloom’s
Taxonomy while designing instruction and assessments. Learning
objectives should include specific verbs in the taxonomy that accurately
describe what students are expected to be able to do at the end of
instruction. Objectives should include skills in all levels of Bloom’s
Taxonomy, not just the lower levels. When reading nonfiction texts, for
example, students may answer some basic recall questions. However,
they may also be asked to evaluate authors’ claims and support their
evaluations with evidence. Higher-level thinking skills are important for
close reading activities, and they help students more deeply
comprehend their reading.
Describe some components of balanced literacy programs.
Balanced literacy programs teach students a variety of reading skills and
strategies that can be used to decode and comprehend texts. They
include a mixture of systematic and explicit skills instruction and
opportunities to read and write texts for authentic purposes.
Balanced literacy programs include instruction in phonological
awareness. This is important because phonological awareness abilities
are key indicators of future reading success. Systematic and explicit
phonics instruction is also an important part of balanced literacy
programs. Phonics skills are used to help students both decode and
encode texts. Reading fluency is also modeled and pm’acticed in balanced
literacy programs. Additionally, vocabulary is another component.
Students receive explicit instruction in using context and morphological
clues to figure out the meanings of unknown words. They also build
connections among meanings of related words. Comprehension
strategies are also taught and practiced as part of balanced literacy
programs.
Differentiate between phonics-based and whole language approaches to reading instruction, and explain the benefits and shortfalls of each.
Phonics-based reading programs use a bottom-up approach to
instruction. Proponents of this approach believe that children learn best
when instruction progresses from part to whole. They first teach
children to identify letters and letter sounds. Next, they progress to
teaching students to decode single words. Later, they decode sentences
and longer texts.
Whole language reading programs use a top-down approach.
Proponents of this approach believe children learn best from being
immersed in authentic texts. They believe that by exploring these texts,
children gradually learn the rules and patterns of language.
Teaching phonics helps students learn to decode and encode words and
see relationships among spelling patterns. Rapid decoding also assists
with fluency. However, if phonics skills are only taught in isolation,
students miss out on opportunities to engage with texts and develop
comprehension strategies. The whole language approach helps students
understand how reading and writing are used to convey meaning for
authentic purposes. However, some students may struggle with learning
the rules and patterns needed to effectively decode and encode words.
Research indicates that systematic and explicit phonics instruction and
opportunities to read and write authentic texts are both important. Both
should be components of balanced literacy programs.
Describe some different systems that are used to level books.
There are several different systems that are used to level books. Lexile
measures consider both text complexity and word frequency to level
books. Specialized assessments are used to determine students’ Lexile
levels, which can then be used to select appropriate books.
Irene Fountas and Gay Su Pinnell developed another system for leveling
books based on their recommendations for guided reading groups. Their
system, sometimes known as guided reading levels, considers several
factors to assign book levels. These factors include word frequency,
sentence complexity, vocabulary, and text features. Running records can
help identify guided reading levels.
The Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA), also provides a
system for leveling books. Students can take the BRA to determine their
instructional reading levels. Results can then be used to select books
using the DRA system.
Because there are many different leveling systems, conversion charts
are available online to help teachers and parents identify book levels
using their preferred systems.
Explain the role that flexible groupings play in effective reading instruction.
Flexible groupings are one way that teachers can differentiate
instruction. When using flexible grouping, teachers strategically group
students together to accomplish specific instructional goals. The groups
may be large or small, and they vary depending on the activity. For
example, a teacher may work with a small group of students who are all
having difficulties with cause-and-effect relationships. The teacher is
able to target instruction in this skill area to only the students who need
extra practice. Guided reading groups are also flexible because students
typically progress through instructional reading levels at different rates.
Teachers can use both formal and informal assessment data to group
students.
Flexible groupings have several benefits. They allow students to receive
targeted instruction, often in small-group settings that allow for more
teacher interaction. Students who have mastered these skills are able to
work on other things, preventing them from becoming bored or
frustrated. Additionally, students may feel more comfortable
participating in small groups of their peers. Flexible groupings also
mean that students will have opportunities to work with many other
students throughout the year.
Describe some factors teachers need to consider when grouping students for instructional purposes.
When determining when and how to group students for instructional
purposes, teachers should take many factors into consideration. They
should consider what instructional goals they want to accomplish. These
goals are often based upon specific learning objectives.
Once teachers know what goals they want to accomplish, they can
consider what types of groupings to use. Possibilities include partner
learning as well as small or large group instruction. Teachers also need
to consider the characteristics of the students in each group. For
example, teachers may group students who need to practice specific
skills together to target instruction. Other times, they may group
students who have differing perspectives on topics to facilitate active
discussion and sharing of viewpoints. These decisions should support
the learning objectives. Teachers also need to consider what types of
learning activities to use within the groups. Additionally, they need to
consider what roles students will be assigned within their groups, if any.
It is common for classrooms to use a variety of grouping arrangements
throughout the year to accomplish different instructional goals.
Describe how literacy centers can be used in balanced literacy programs.
Literacy centers are important components of balanced literacy
programs. They allow students to practice literacy skills on a regular
basis while also allowing teachers time to work with small groups for
guided reading instruction. Teachers typically create routines that allow
students to rotate through some or all of the centers each day.
Sometimes they are given choices over which centers to visit. Other
times, teachers may direct students to proceed through the centers in
predetermined orders for management purposes.
There are several common centers in literacy-rich classrooms.
Independent reading centers include several texts of various genres
for students to read by themselves, usually in relaxing and comfortable
environments. Listening centers contain digital texts and headphones.
Technology centers contain computers and/or tablets for literacy
games, digital presentations, research, and more. Word work centers
contain activities and manipulatives that allow students to explore how
words and sentences are put together. Writing centers contain paper,
dictionaries, and other materials students can use for writing. Partner
reading centers provide places for students to read with one another.
Early childhood classrooms may also contain sensory and dramatic
play centers. Additionally, classrooms contain designated areas where
teachers can meet with small groups for guided reading.
Describe some classroom management strategies for effective guided reading groups.
Guided reading groups are important components of balanced literacy
programs because they allow students to receive differentiated, small-group
instruction on a routine basis. However, they may be ineffective if
frequent interruptions or classroom management issues occur. Clearly
established and practiced routines can prevent these issues from
occurring.
Students who are not working with their teachers in guided reading
groups should be engaged in activities they are able to successfully
complete either independently or with the help of their peers. If center
rotations are being used, students should know in what order to proceed
through the centers and what the expectations are for each rotation.
Additionally, routines should be in place for how to solve problems
without interrupting the guided reading groups. There should be clear
criteria in place for when the teachers can be interrupted, such as in the
case of emergencies. Students should be taught how to independently
access any materials they may need to complete their activities. Hand
signals or sign-out sheets may be utilized to minimize interruptions
when students need permission to leave the classroom. Students can
also be taught to ask a set number of classmates for assistance with
problems before asking their teachers.
Describe some classroom management strategies for effective literacy centers.
It is important to establish clear routines and expectations for literacy
centers at the beginning of each school year. If several literacy centers will be
included, they should be gradually introduced a few at a time, especially for
younger students. When introducing each center, teachers should discuss
and model expected center behavior. This includes explaining whether or
not group work is allowed, how the materials should be properly used, and
how to correctly complete the center activities. Each center’s materials
should be clearly labeled and be housed in designated locations.
Clear procedures should be in place for how students should rotate through
the centers, minimizing confusion and overcrowding at each location.
Countdown timers can be clearly displayed on projectors while students are
working, providing warnings when it is time to clean up and rotate. Both
auditory and visual clues can be provided to assist with transitions.
Teachers can also occasionally rotate center activities to allow students to
practice newly learned skills and prevent boredom. However, teachers
should model how to complete the new activities before asking students to
do them independently during center time. This is especially important for
young students who may not be able to read directions independently.
Describe some record keeping strategies that are useful in literacy instruction.
Record keeping can assist teachers with assessing students’ progress
over time and differentiating instruction. Some teachers prefer to keep
separate folders for each student. These folders may contain assessment
data and work samples from throughout the year. Other teachers prefer
to keep separate folders for each topic. For example, a teacher may have
one guided reading folder that contains a list of students’ current
instructional reading levels and the skills that have been highlighted in
each guided reading mini-lesson.
There are many types of records that may be useful. Copies of running
records can be used to indicate students’ growth in the use of reading
strategies over time. Anecdotal records can provide information about
observed reading behaviors and areas that need further instruction.
Lists of students’ reading levels and flexible grouping charts can assist
teachers with planning guided reading groups. Writing portfolios can be
used to demonstrate progress in writing, and they may be organized by
genre, chronology, or other means. Dating each writing piece can assist
teachers and students with observing growth.
Teachers may also keep records of literacy center schedules to ensure
that students have opportunities to rotate through each center regularly.
Explain what it means to implement reading programs with fidelity. Then describe some common benefits and concerns of implementing reading programs with fidelity.
Implementing reading programs with fidelity means using them as the
program developers intended. This includes following the intended pacing
guides, incorporating all recommended instructional components, using the
materials as intended, and more. Fidelity is necessary if reading programs
are to be effectively evaluated after implementation. If not implemented with
fidelity, unfavorable results may be due to causes unrelated to the quality of
the programs. For example, students’ comprehension scores may decline if
teachers repeatedly skip the recommended comprehension components due
to time constraints. Additionally, implementing the programs with fidelity
helps ensure that students receive the research-based instruction promised
by the programs. Presenting lessons out of sequence, omitting portions of
instruction, and other changes may negatively affect the quality of
instruction.
However, teachers sometimes have concerns with using reading programs
exactly as intended. They may believe that some lessons are ineffective for
their students, based on what they know about their students’ prior
knowledge and existing skills. Logistical issues, such as available time and
resources, may also interfere with implementing programs with fidelity.
When making instructional decisions, teachers and administrators must
carefully weigh the program recommendations with their own beliefs about
their students and best teaching practices.
Describe some factors educators should consider when selecting reading programs.
There are numerous reading programs available, so educators should take
several factors into consideration when determining which programs are
best for their districts and schools. The selected programs should be based
on reliable and valid research about how students learn best. Information
should be provided about the research and educational philosophies the
programs are based upon. Additionally, the selected programs should
address all components of balanced literacy instruction, including
phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary development, and
comprehension. Teacher guides should be available, with plans for
systematic instruction using developmentally appropriate pacing guides.
Frequent opportunities for explicit instruction, guided practice, and
extension activities should be included in the instructional plans.
Reading programs should also contain plans and materials to help teachers
differentiate instruction. The programs should offer support for struggling,
on-level, and advanced readers as well as ELLs. Leveled texts and tips for
differentiating lesson plans maybe included.
Selected reading programs should offer adequate professional development
opportunities to help teachers use the programs successfully.
Explain some criteria that can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of reading programs after they have been implemented.
Before selecting and implementing new reading programs, districts
should consider the instructional and performance gaps they hope to
address. By analyzing current performance data and identifying areas in
need of improvement, districts can establish specific and measurable
goals for their reading instruction. These goals can be used to select
appropriate programs and to evaluate their effectiveness over time. By
comparing data related to the goals from both before and after the new
programs are implemented, districts can determine if the gaps are
shrinking.
For example, a district may determine that many of its elementary
students are not meeting grade-level expectations for reading fluency on
standardized state tests. They may determine that one goal for their new
reading program is to increase the percentage of elementary students
who meet grade-level expectations for fluency by a certain amount over
the next two years. They may then select a reading program that
features daily fluency instruction and leveled texts for fluency practice.
The district can then analyze the data from the same tests over the next
few years to determine if the percentage of students who met grade
level expectations for fluency increased by the expected amount.
Describe some strategies that can be used to increase the likelihood of positive results when implementing new reading programs.
Strategic planning and ongoing support are both necessary for new program
implementation to be successful. Rushing the process initially or tapering off
support too soon can lead to frustration and poor results.
It is important to have trusted reading specialists, administrators, or other
educators who are well trained in the programs before they are introduced
to teachers. These specialists should be available to address concerns and
anxiety about the changes. These specialists should also share the research
supporting the new programs and the district objectives they are designed to
support.
Districts should provide opportunities within teachers’ workdays to learn
how to use the new programs rather than requiring them to explore the
programs on their own time. The trainings should be carefully planned to
maximize the use of teachers’ limited time. Teachers should have
opportunities to observe other teachers who are already using the programs
effectively.
It is also important to provide frequent support throughout the duration of
each program rather than tapering off support after the initial training
period. Educators should have ongoing opportunities to share successful
strategies and discuss concerns with others. Support specialists should also
be easily accessible when needed.
