Assessment and Instructional Design Making Flashcards

Question

Define rubric, and explain the benefits of using rubrics to assess literacy development.

Answer 1

Rubrics are evaluation tools used to assign scores to students’ work. They explain the criteria used to assign scores for different levels of mastery. Rubrics can be given to students when projects are assigned to ensure they understand expectations. They can make evaluation more consistent because all students are evaluated using the same criteria. Rubrics can also be easily adapted to reflect different types of activities and assignments. There are many ways rubrics can be used to evaluate literacy development. They can be used to assess students’ reading fluency, with categories relating to speed, accuracy, and prosody. They can also be used to evaluate projects relating to analysis and comprehension. Additionally, rubrics can be used to assess students’ writing. Categories relating to development, use of language, conventions, and other topics can be included. The rubrics can be adapted to reflect the genres or text structures used.

Answer 2

Analytic rubrics assign separate scores for each criterion being evaluated. For example, if a writing rubric has criteria for development, use of language, and conventions, each of these areas receives its own score. These scores are then added together to determine the overall score for the assignment. Analytic rubrics provide targeted feedback and help students understand their strengths and weaknesses. However, they can be time-consuming to create and adapt. Holistic rubrics provide one overall score for the assignment rather than evaluating each criterion separately. They list varying levels of performance, and each level describes the characteristics of assignments earning that score. For example, a writing assignment might be assigned a score ranging from 1 to 4. Assignments earning a score of 4 would be well developed, have effective use of language, and have few or no errors with conventions. Holistic rubrics can be faster for teachers to create and adapt for different assignments. However, the feedback is less targeted than it is when using analytic rubrics, which evaluate each criterion separately.

Answer 3

Literacy assessments can serve many purposes. Assessments can be used to monitor the progress of students toward achieving district and state benchmarks as well as individualized goals. They can identify specific skills that students have mastered as well as those that need additional practice. They can also identify if students are making adequate yearly progress. Additionally, assessments can be used to guide teacher instruction. By analyzing assessment results, teachers can determine which topics they should focus on for whole-class, small-group, and individualized instruction. This helps ensure that too much instructional time is not spent on topics students have already mastered while ignoring topics that need additional practice. Assessments can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of reading programs. By analyzing students’ assessment data over time, districts can look for trends in student achievement and progress toward closing achievement gaps.

Answer 4

Screening assessments are used to identify students who may be at risk for future academic difficulties. Information gained from these assessments can be used to determine which students would likely benefit from specialized interventions to help prevent academic difficulties in the future. Adequate literacy screening is important in young children. Studies have shown that literacy difficulties are harder to remedy through intervention after third grade. By identifying these students early and providing appropriate interventions, these difficulties can be prevented or lessened. For example, phonemic awareness screenings are frequently given to early childhood students because phonemic awareness is a key indicator of future reading success. Diagnostic assessments are used to identify students’ existing knowledge and skills before beginning instruction. For example, students may complete diagnostic assessments focused on using comprehension strategies to understand nonfiction texts. Data from diagnostic assessments can be used to help teachers plan differentiated instruction to meet students’ individual needs.

Answer 5

Formal assessments are administered and scored in a standardized fashion. Therefore, scoring is objective. Formal assessments can provide information about students’ performances in relationship to other students and data regarding how well they have learned specific skills. Formal assessments include both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests. Examples include commercial standardized tests, state-mandated standardized tests, district assessments, and quizzes. Informal assessments are not administered or scored in a standardized fashion. Scoring is subjective. Examples include student interviews, classroom observations, anecdotal records, and checklists. Although formal assessments can provide useful data about student performance and progress, they can be costly and time-consuming to implement. Administering formal assessments often interrupts classroom instruction, and it may cause testing anxiety. Informal assessments do not provide objective data for analysis, but they can be implemented quickly and inexpensively. Informal assessments can also be incorporated into regular classroom instruction and activities, making them more authentic and less stressful for students.

Answer 6

Formative assessments are conducted throughout the learning process. Formative assessments are diagnostic in nature and are used to identify both existing knowledge and gaps. Information learned from formative assessments can be used to plan and guide instruction. Formative assessments can be formal or informal and may include observations, homework assignments, class discussions, and weekly quizzes. They may include a combination of teacher assessments and student self-assessments. Summative assessments are used to evaluate students’ learning after units of instruction have concluded. Summative assessments are usually considered to be higher stakes than formative assessments and typically include formal grades or scores. Examples of summative assessments include unit tests and yearly standardized tests. Summative assessments can assist teachers with determining if instruction has been successful or if changes need to be made to their instructional methods. Both formative and summative assessments provide value to teachers and play a role in the classroom. The results of each can be used to improve instruction.

Answer 7

Group literacy assessments are administered to groups of students at one time. Teachers explain the directions and then instruct all students to begin working, while they observe and answer questions. Assessments are scored after students finish and submit them. Examples of group literacy assessments include state-mandated standardized reading and writing tests. Using the group approach to literacy assessments is more efficient than individualized assessment, freeing up more time for classroom instruction. It also assists teachers with classroom management because all students are being assessed at once. Individualized assessments are given to one student at a time. Teachers may listen to students read, observe strategy usage, or ask students to retell stories they have read. Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) and Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA) are examples of individual assessments. This approach allows teachers to closely observe the strategies each student uses. However, it is more time intensive, and the remaining students in the class must be engaged in other activities.

Answer 8

Technology-based assessments can have many advantages. They can be given to large numbers of students at once, limited only by the amounts of technological equipment schools possess. Many types of technology-based assessments are instantly scored, and feedback is quickly provided. Students are sometimes able to view their results and feedback at the conclusion of their testing sessions. Data can be quickly compiled and reported in easy-to-understand formats. Technology-based assessments can also often track student progress over time. Technology-based assessments can have some disadvantages as well. Glitches and system errors can interfere with the assessment process or score reporting. Students must also have the necessary prerequisite technological skills to take the asses3ments, or the results may not measure the content they are designed to measure. For example, if students take timed computer-based writing tests, they should have proficient typing skills. Otherwise, they may perform poorly on the tests despite strong writing abilities. Other prerequisite skills include knowing how to use a keyboard and mouse and understanding how to locate necessary information on the screen.

Answer 9

On norm-referenced tests, students’ performances are compared to the performances of sample groups of similar students. Norm-referenced tests identify students who score above and below the average. To ensure reliability, the tests must be given in a standardized manner to all students. Norm-referenced tests usually cover a broad range of skills, such as the entire grade-level curriculum for a subject. They typically contain a few questions per skill. Whereas scores in component areas of the tests may be calculated, usually overall test scores are reported. Scores are often reported using percentile ranks, which indicate what percentage of test takers scored lower than the student being assessed. For example, a student’s score in the 75th percentile means the student scored better than 75% of other test takers. Other times, scores may be reported using grade-level equivalency. One advantage of norm-referenced tests is their objectivity. They also allow educators to compare large groups of students at once. This may be helpful for making decisions regarding class placements and groupings. A disadvantage of norm-referenced tests is that they only indicate how well students perform in comparison to one another. They do not indicate whether or not students have mastered certain skills.

Answer 10

Criterion-referenced tests measure how well students perform on certain skills or standards. The goal of these tests is to indicate whether or not students have mastered certain skills and which skills require additional instruction. Scores are typically reported using the percentage of questions answered correctly or students’ performance levels. Performance levels are outlined using terms such as below expectations, met expectations, and exceeded expectations. One advantage of criterion-referenced tests is they provide teachers with useful information to guide instruction. They can identify which specific skills students have mastered and which skills need additional practice. Teachers can use this information to plan whole-class, small-group, and individualized instruction. Analyzing results of criterion-referenced tests over time can also help teachers track student progress on certain skills. A disadvantage of criterion-referenced tests is they do not allow educators to compare students’ performances to samples of their peers.

Answer 11

Raw scores are sometimes reported and indicate how many questions students answered correctly on a test. By themselves, they do not provide much useful information. They do not indicate how students performed in comparison to other students or to grade-level expectations. Grade-level equivalents are also sometimes reported. A grade-level equivalent score of 3.4 indicates that a student performed as well as an average third grader in the fourth month of school. It can indicate whether a student is performing above or below grade-level expectations, but it does not indicate that the student should be moved to a different grade level. Standard scores are used to compare students’ performances on tests to standardized samples of their peers. Standard deviation refers to the amount that a set of scores differs from the mean score on a test. Percentile ranks are used on criterion-referenced tests to indicate what percentage of test takers scored lower than the student whose score is being reported. Cutoff scores refer to predetermined scores students must obtain in order to be considered proficient in certain areas. Scores below the cutoff level indicate improvement is needed and may result in interventions or instructional changes.

Answer 12

Progress monitoring is used to track students’ progress toward achieving certain performance goals over time. Teachers first identify students who may benefit from progress monitoring. This usually occurs as a result of assessment data. Students who score below expectations on certain components of criterion-referenced tests may be progressively monitored in those areas. Teachers then set performance goals that can be measured and tracked over time. For example, if students are currently decoding five CVC words correctly in one minute, the goal may be for them to decode 15 words per minute. Interventions are put in place to help students with these skills. Teachers then repeat testing in these targeted areas on a regular basis, such as weekly or biweekly. Results are recorded, and teachers look for progress over time. Once students have mastered the initial goals, new goals are set, or progress monitoring is discontinued, depending on students’ needs. Progress monitoring can help teachers identify whether or not current interventions are successful or whether changes are needed. It can also help teachers identify when students have mastered certain skills.

Answer 13

Testing validity refers to how well tests measure what they claim to measure. For example, a test designed to measure students’ knowledge of concepts of print should include a range of questions requiring students to recognize and apply these concepts. Unrelated questions should not be included. Testing reliability refers to the consistency of the test results over time and among participants. If a student takes the same test on two different days, the results should be about the same. Additionally, two different students who perform the same on a test should receive the same scores. If tests are unreliable, no conclusions can be drawn from the results. Testing bias occurs when the test design disadvantages certain groups of participants. For example, cultural bias occurs when test questions include cultural references that some students may not understand. This bias may cause these students to answer the questions incorrectly even if they possess the knowledge and skills the questions are supposed to assess.

Answer 14

There are several types of formal assessments designed to assess readers. Some assessments assess knowledge of concepts of print. These are typically performance assessments. Students are asked to locate titles and authors’ names, identify letters and words, track the direction of print, and more. Teachers observe students and mark their responses on recording sheets containing scoring criteria. Other formal assessments ask students to identify letter names, apply phonological and phonemic awareness skills, and decode words. Portions of the DIBELS assessment are examples of this type. Data gained from these assessments can be used to group students, plan differentiated instruction, and develop interventions. Other formal assessments evaluate students’ decoding abilities and reading fluency. Students may be asked to read short texts while being timed. They may also be asked to retell stories or answer comprehension questions. Both DIBELS and DRA are two examples of this type of assessment. State standardized tests often require students to read passages and answer comprehension questions. In addition to helping teachers group students and differentiate instruction, these assessments can also help teachers select appropriately leveled texts. There are also formal assessments that specifically assess students’ vocabulary knowledge.

Answer 15

Students’ writing is often formally assessed using teacher-created, district-mandated, and state-mandated assessments. These assessments typically provide students with specific writing prompts indicating the topics and text structures they are expected to use. Sometimes prompts are based on reading passages that are also contained in the assessments. For example, students may be asked to read two related texts and write responses that explain the common theme they share. Students’ written responses on formal assessments are usually scored using either analytic or holistic rubrics. These rubrics should contain clear criteria that reflect the performance expectations for students. Common criteria include development, organization, language use, conventions, and following the writing process. By analyzing students’ performances on different rubric criteria, teachers can plan individualized instruction and develop interventions for struggling students. For example, if students are struggling with language use, teachers can help students analyze mentor texts that contain strong examples.

Answer 16

One type of informal assessment is miscue analysis, which occurs when teachers listen to students as they read and analyze their miscues. By looking for patterns in the miscues, teachers can determine which strategies students are using and which are lacking. This information can be used to guide instruction. Informal reading inventories require students to read leveled texts while teachers note errors and fluency. Students then respond to comprehension questions about the texts. Information gained from informal reading inventories can be used to select leveled texts, group students, and plan appropriate instruction. Portfolios are another type of informal assessment. Portfolios consist of collections of student work, which can be used to show progress over time. Performance assessments can also be used to assess students’ literacy development while allowing students to complete authentic tasks. For example, students may research nutritional guidelines and read food labels to create healthy weekly meal plans. Informal assessment can also occur when teachers observe students engaged in literacy activities, ask them to explain their thinking, and note performance on assignments and homework. These methods can provide valuable information about students’ knowledge and skills, which can be used to guide instruction.

Answer 17

Running records are tools used to record students’ behaviors and use of strategies during reading. To administer running records, teachers provide students with books in their developmental reading levels and ask them to read the books aloud. While students are reading, teachers record the words read correctly with check marks. They also note errors by recording the actual words in the texts and the words students substituted for them. Word repetitions, omissions, and self-corrections are also noted using special symbols. By analyzing errors, teachers can determine which cueing systems students are consistently using. They can plan mini-lessons to encourage students to use the cueing systems they are not currently using. Teachers can also note fluency and how students track the texts. Analyzing self-corrections can indicate whether or not students are self-monitoring their reading. Additionally, accuracy rates can be calculated. To calculate accuracy rates, teachers first divide the number of words read correctly by the total number of words in the texts and then multiply the answers by 100. Accuracy rates can be used to determine if the texts are in students’ frustration, instructional, or independent reading levels. This assists teachers with selecting appropriate texts and differentiating instruction to meet students’ needs.

Answer 18

Performance-based assessments require students to solve real-world problems and accomplish authentic tasks by applying literacy skills and strategies. An example of a performance-based assessment is writing a letter to a government official in support of a new law, citing evidence-based reasons for the position. Depending on the types of tasks involved, performance-based assessments may require students to synthesize information from multiple sources, defend positions with text evidence, write texts following the writing process, and create materials to convey information to others. Performance-based assessments are open ended and do not contain right oi- wrong answers. Typically, there are multiple ways that students can approach the tasks. The assessments are evaluated using rubrics, with clear criteria determined and shared with students in advance. An advantage of performance-based assessments is that they allow students opportunities to solve real-world problems, thereby increasing learner engagement. They also require higher-level thinking skills, such as analysis, application, synthesis, amid creation. Additionally, they often allow students some choices in how they present their learning. A disadvantage is that performance-based assessments may be time consuming to create and implement. Grading can also be subjective.

Answer 19

Portfolios are collections of students’ projects and work gathered over time. They can serve many purposes in assessing literacy development. They can be used to track students’ progress over time and check for mastery of certain skills, which is useful for planning differentiated instruction. Portfolios can also be passed along to students’ future teachers, helping them determine students’ instructional levels. Additionally, portfolios can be used to help students self-evaluate their own progress and set future goals. If using portfolios, teachers must make several decisions. They must determine how the portfolios will be used, which will influence the criteria used to select portfolio entries. They also need to determine how entries will be selected. Will teachers or students select the entries, or will both play roles in the process? Teachers also need to decide if the portfolios will be graded. Checklists and rubrics are possible tools that can be used to grade portfolios. Some advantages of portfolios include the ability to see concrete evidence of student progress over time and the possibility of having students actively involved in assessing their own progress. However, evaluating portfolios is subjective, and teachers may be unsure of how to use them to guide instruction.

Answer 20

Even proficient readers make errors at times. Fluent readers often read texts rapidly and may occasionally omit or substitute words without changing the meanings of the texts. For example, they may substitute “her house” for “the house” in a text. These types of errors do not impact meaning and, if occasional, can be ignored. Stopping to correct these types of minor errors can interrupt fluency and comprehension. Readers in the emergent and early stages of development may make frequent errors and become frustrated if corrected each time. Overcorrection may interfere with confidence and reading enjoyment. Teachers should strategically choose which types of errors to respond to during each reading session. One approach is to focus on a single type of error each time, such as errors where syntax cues are ignored. Another approach is to intervene only when errors affect the meaning of the text. Minor errors can be ignored to build fluency and confidence.

Answer 21

When determining reading levels, teachers typically consider both accuracy rate and comprehension. Different reading programs vary slightly in their cutoff levels, but texts are generally considered to be at the frustration level if they are read with less than 90% accuracy. Additionally, responding correctly to less than 70% of comprehension questions may indicate that texts are at students’ frustration levels. These books are considered difficult for students to read. Texts at the frustration level can be used in beneficial ways. Students may enjoy exploring difficult texts on topics of interest, which may help them develop a love of reading. Because these texts can provide valuable information that students cannot access independently, teachers can also read these texts aloud or provide digital versions with audio. Teachers can model using reading strategies with these difficult texts during shared reading experiences. Additionally, students can be encouraged to read these texts with family members.

Answer 22

When determining reading levels, teachers typically consider both accuracy rate and comprehension. Different reading programs vary slightly in their cutoff levels, but texts are generally considered to be at the instructional level if they are read with 90% to 94% accuracy. Additionally, responding correctly to 70% to 89% of comprehension questions may indicate that texts are at students’ instructional levels. These books present some challenges for readers, but they can still be read without frustration. Texts at the instructional level are appropriate for use in guided reading groups. Students are able to decode most words, yet a few miscues may occur that can be used as teaching points. Teachers may analyze student errors and use this information to plan mini-lessons. Additionally, students are able to apply comprehension strategies to analyze and discuss these texts. Texts at the instructional level allow students to have successful and positive experiences with reading while still learning from their challenges.

Answer 23

When determining reading levels, teachers typically consider both accuracy rate and comprehension. Different reading programs vary slightly in their cutoff levels, but texts are generally considered to be at the independent level if they are read with 95% to 100% accuracy. Additionally, responding correctly to 90% to 100% of comprehension questions may indicate that texts are at students’ independent levels. Texts at the independent reading level can be read by students with no assistance. Texts that students can read independently are good candidates for free choice reading time. They also can be used when practicing comprehension strategies, such as inferring and drawing conclusions. Because students do not struggle to decode words in these texts, they have the mental energy available to do more complex analysis. Students can also repeatedly read favorite books at their independent reading levels for fluency practice, and they can read these books to partners or family members.

Answer 24

When selecting appropriate texts to support diverse learners, teachers should take several factors into consideration. First, they should consider students’ reading levels and stages of reading development to determine how much text support is needed. For emergent and early readers, teachers should consider how much picture support is present, how many words are printed on each page, and the predictability of the text. They should also consider how easily students will be able to decode the words based on spelling patterns, text clues, and use of high-frequency words. For transitional and fluent readers, teachers should consider text complexity. This includes the vocabulary, language use, and sentence structure used in the texts. They should also consider how the texts relate to students’ prior knowledge and interests and whether the content supports learning objectives. If topics are unfamiliar to students, some scaffolding or pre-teaching may be needed.

Answer 25

Teachers can utilize multiple techniques to effectively analyze and interpret assessment data. This typically involves creating charts and graphs outlining different data subsets. They can list each learning standard that was assessed, determine how many students overall demonstrated proficiency on the standard, and identify individual students who did not demonstrate proficiency on each standard. This information can be used to differentiate instruction. Additionally, they can track individual student performance and progress on each standard over time. Teachers can take note of overall patterns and trends in assessment data. For example, they can determine if any subgroups of students did not meet expectations. They can consider whether the data confirms or challenges any existing beliefs, implications this may have on instructional planning and what, if any, conclusions can be drawn from this data. Analyzing and interpreting assessment data may raise new questions for educators, so they can also determine if additional data collection is needed.

Answer 26

By analyzing and interpreting assessment data, teachers can determine if there are any specific learning standards that need to be retaught to their entire classes. This may be necessary if the data shows that all students struggled in these specific areas. Teachers may consider reteaching these standards using different methods if the initial methods were unsuccessful. Teachers can also form groups of students who did not demonstrate proficiency on the same learning standards. Targeted instruction can be planned for these groups to help them make progress in these areas. Interventions can also be planned for individual students who did not show proficiency in certain areas, If interventions have already been in place and have not led to increased learning outcomes, the interventions may be redesigned. If interventions have been in place and assessment data now shows proficiency, the interventions may be discontinued. If assessment data shows that certain students have met or exceeded expectations in certain areas, enrichment activities can be planned to challenge these students and meet their learning needs.

Answer 27

In early childhood classrooms, print-rich environments contain books and texts of different genres and topics, including both audio and digital texts. Walls and shelves have signs and labels to help with classroom procedures and organization. Posters display information related to content students have been studying. Reading, writing, and listening centers are available for students to explore during center time. Puppet theaters and flannel boards are present to encourage oral language and storytelling. There are also many literacy-related materials, such as letter tiles and sight word cards. Word walls are posted. In print-rich environments, students are encouraged to share and display texts they have created. They may add their own stories to the classroom libraries or hang up signs they have made. Materials created during shared and interactive reading and writing experiences may also be displayed. In classrooms for older students, signs and posters are displayed containing academic vocabulary, content students have been studying, and classroom procedures. Written and digital texts from a range of genres are present. There are also ample resources available for students to use to locate and share information, such as computers, tablets, dictionaries, and thesauri.

Answer 28

An important component of print-rich homes is easy access to developmentally appropriate texts in a range of genres. Although favorite texts can be kept and reread repeatedly, children should also have access to new and changing texts over time as their interests and skills develop. Both digital and print-based texts are commonly found in print-rich homes. This may include books, magazines, newspapers, online literacy games, and digital stories. In addition to books, print-rich homes also contain a lot of environmental print that children can read. This may include cereal boxes, board game directions, recipes, mail, and more. Exploring this environmental print helps children understand different purposes for reading and writing. Children in print-rich homes have easy access to a variety of writing materials, such as paper, pencils, and crayons. Computers can also be available to type texts. Children should be encouraged to write for a variety of purposes and audiences.

Answer 29

Dramatic play centers are common in early childhood classrooms. These centers allow children to act out realistic situations through play. Examples include pretend restaurants, homes, veterinary clinics, and grocery stores. While engaging in dramatic play, children read, write, listen, and speak for authentic purposes. As children role-play and interact with other children in dramatic play centers, they develop oral language skills. They engage in conversations and practice using language to accomplish tasks, such as ordering in restaurants. They also listen to peers and follow directions, such as when they are pretending to be restaurant servers. Children also engage in reading activities in dramatic play centers. Labels and realistic print materials can be included. For example, pretend restaurants may include labeled cabinets and menus. Children can practice writing through dramatic play. For example, children who are pretending to be servers may write down orders on notepads.

Answer 30

Teachers can plan reading, writing, listening, and speaking activities across all subject areas. This can include a mixture of independent literacy activities and shared and interactive reading and writing experiences. Texts focusing on topics that are being studied in all content areas can be accessible in the classroom. Students can also write in all subject areas. For example, they can write the processes used to solve problems in math and create travel brochures in social studies. Teachers of early childhood and elementary students can plan morning meetings in which daily written messages are read and discussed. Students can share current events and topics of interest with their classmates during these meetings, while other students listen and ask questions. Early childhood and elementary teachers can also incorporate oral language and listening into daily routines. For example, they may recite specific chants or songs during transitions.

Answer 31

There are many ways that instructional technologies can be used to create classroom environments that support literacy development. Computer programs and apps can be used to practice and assess literacy skills, and there are many options that differentiate instruction based on students’ existing skills. Many of these programs and apps also save and track students’ progress, helping both students and teachers track progress toward goals. Projectors, document cameras, and interactive whiteboards can also be used to magnify texts so students can follow along during instruction. Interactive whiteboards also allow students to actively participate in literacy activities with classmates. Digital texts can be used to support listening development and assist students with reading texts that are too difficult for them to read independently. Interactive storybooks that display and track text for emergent and beginning readers can also be used. There are many digital tools and software options that can be used to create forms of media such as slideshow presentations, infographics, digital storybooks, and newsletters. Modern tools can also be used to help students collaborate on projects, even if they are working remotely.

Answer 32

Reading, writing, listening, and speaking are the four main components of English language development. All of these components are important and interdependent. They all play roles in making and conveying meaning, which are goals of literacy instruction. These skills are sometimes practiced in isolation, such as when students listen to audio texts without any follow-up activities. However, when solving real-world problems, these skills are often used together. For example, doctors must listen to their patients’ symptoms, make notes on the patients’ charts, and then explain their treatment plans. Therefore, it is important for teachers to plan activities that integrate these four skills. Project-based learning activities and performance assessments are useful for integrating these four skills. As an example, students could read about the benefits of recycling. They could then speak to the school principal to recommend implementing a school-wide recycling plan, listening and responding to the principal’s concerns. They could then create posters to advertise the new program to other students.

Answer 33

Helping students develop a lifelong love of reading is an important goal of literacy instruction. Teachers can model their own love of reading by talking about their favorite books and authors and modeling their own use of reading strategies. They can share stories of how reading has positively affected their own lives and opened up new opportunities. Teachers can also help develop communities of readers within their classrooms, making reading a social experience. Fun and interactive read-alouds and shared reading experiences can help create communities of readers, along with organizing literature circles and reader’s theater activities. Favorite books can be reread multiple times, with students participating in the reading. Teachers can give students frequent opportunities to read books of choice. They can create classroom libraries containing multiple types of texts that students can access easily. Comfortable reading spaces, such as reading chairs and pillows, are also beneficial. Students should also have opportunities to visit their school libraries regularly. Additionally, teachers can guide students in completing author studies. Students may form connections to favorite authors and seek additional books they have written.

Answer 34

Independent reading is beneficial for students’ reading development and is sometimes necessary when teachers are working with other students. Therefore, some strategies can be used to make independent reading experiences successful. It is important to teach students to select appropriate texts that will not lead to boredom or frustration. Some teachers instruct students to apply the five-finger rule. In this approach, students randomly select a single page of text to read. If they struggle to decode five or more words, the book is too difficult. Other teachers inform students of their reading levels and keep labeled boxes of leveled texts available. Students can also be encouraged to maintain personal book boxes that contain several appropriate books so that they are ready for independent reading time. To remind students of decoding and comprehension strategies they can use during independent reading time, teachers can display posters in their classrooms. Students can also be given small, personalized copies of these strategies to use. Additionally, students can be encouraged to analyze and discuss what they have read to build interest and engagement. They can maintain reader-response logs or join literature circles with others who have read the same texts.

Answer 35

One technique to motivate students to read is to make reading an enjoyable part of the daily routine. This includes designating daily time for reading, providing a comfortable, relaxed atmosphere, helping students select texts of interest, and showing genuine interest in discussing the texts together. This technique is easy to implement, and students who look forward to this reading time as children may continue reading for enjoyment in adulthood. A disadvantage is that some students may not respond to this approach. Another technique is to use rewards and incentives for reading. Some programs reward students after they have read a certain number of books or for a certain number of minutes. Sometimes students are tested on the books they have read to assess comprehension. Read-athons are one example of this approach. Peer participation, competition, and opportunities to earn rewards may increase short-term motivation to read. Disadvantages include the costs of the incentives and the possibility that motivation will decrease once the rewards are removed. Teachers frequently use a combination of these techniques by providing daily reading time while also incorporating some incentives for reading.

Answer 36

Family members can help children make reading a part of everyday activities both at home and while out in the community. Helping children explore environmental print and its purposes is one important step family members can take. They can point out business and road signs while driving, for example. At home, they can help children explore environmental print like food labels, posters, and mail. Family members can also help children understand how reading is used to accomplish daily tasks. They can ask children to help create and read lists at the grocery store and select meal choices from restaurant menus. While driving, they can ask children to help read road signs to determine which routes they will take. At home, they can read directions together to assemble new toys and follow recipes to prepare shared meals. There are many benefits to reading with children for authentic purposes; it helps children understand that reading is part of daily life and learn that it can be used for many practical purposes. This approach also blends learning with daily life and real-world tasks, helping engage children in the learning process.

Answer 37

Parents and family members should talk to children frequently from the moment they are born. Children learn how to use language by listening to those around them. Family members can respond to their children’s initial sounds and beginning attempts at speech by making eye contact and replying. When children begin speaking words and sentences, family members can respond by repeating what they have said and adding additional information. They can encourage children to imitate their words and actions, using games like peekaboo. Family members can talk about what they are doing and ask their children open-ended questions. They can use varied vocabulary and sentence structure in their speech. Family members can also engage in wordplay with children. They can read rhyming and repetitive texts, songs, and poems together, encouraging their children to participate. Additionally, they can retell favorite stories orally and make up stories of their own.

Answer 38

Family members can incorporate reading time into their children’s daily routines to promote a love of reading at home. This can include a variety of types of reading experiences. Sometimes family members can read aloud to their children, sometimes children can read aloud to their family members, and sometimes they can take turns reading. Each of these experiences has its own benefits. Children benefit from hearing their family members reading fluently and using reading strategies, and they also benefit from practicing their own reading skills in safe environments. While reading together at home, families can read a mixture of new and favorite texts. The experiences should be fun and relaxing, with opportunities to talk about the stories and characters. They can also listen to audio texts together at various times, such as when they are in the car. Children can benefit from seeing family members reading frequently and for a variety of purposes. Family members can talk about their favorite books and authors. They can also take children to the library regularly to find new books to read together.

Answer 39

Teachers can share information with parents about free public story time events to promote parent involvement in community literacy activities. These events are commonly held at public libraries and bookstores. Teachers can also forge partnerships with their local public libraries. They can inquire about programs that issue library cards to students. Local librarians can be invited to visit classrooms to read aloud to students and share information about upcoming events. Teachers can set up community volunteer programs. Community members can be invited to visit classrooms to read with students. Students can also potentially visit senior centers or other locations to read to adults. Local authors and business people who use reading and writing in their jobs can also be invited to visit classrooms to discuss the role that literacy plays in their lives. Additionally, teachers can encourage students to communicate with community members for authentic purposes. For example, students can send thank-you letters to businesses that hosted field trips or sponsored school events. With parents’ permission, student work can also be displayed during community events.

Answer 40

There are many free and inexpensive online games and apps that students of all ages can use to practice literacy skills. These include letter recognition activities, phonics skills practice, digital texts with comprehension questions, and more. School districts that subscribe to certain online programs may provide parents with links and passwords so students can practice at home. Students can also listen to digital storybooks. Online versions are available that track the text for students and show pictures. Audio versions can be downloaded or checked out from public libraries. Family members can listen to and discuss these stories with their children to practice comprehension strategies. With guidance and supervision, students can communicate with others using digital tools. They can create presentations and written texts using word processing and presentation tools. They can communicate with family members using emails, texts, and videoconferencing tools. They can also use free online tools to create and publish their own digital stories.

Answer 41

Teachers should communicate with caregivers frequently to increase family involvement in reading development. They should convey to caregivers that they are viewed as partners and assure them that they welcome questions and concerns. Teachers should frequently communicate positive information to caregivers in addition to sharing reading concerns. Teachers should also recognize that different families have different resources available, so they should try communicating through multiple channels. This may include phone calls, texts, classroom websites, paper newsletters, emails, and more. Teachers should also be aware of scheduling, cultural, and linguistic differences. Information can be sent home in multiple languages, if possible. Teachers can share links to reading activities and strategies using classroom websites and newsletters. They can also send home reproducible books and texts from classroom libraries, that students can read with their families. Consumable supplies can also be sent home, such as cardstock letter tiles that can be used to practice spelling and building words. Parent and family nights can also be scheduled to share strategies and display student work. These events can be recorded and shared with parents who are unable to attend.

Answer 42

It is important to identify concerns with literacy development early to prevent future academic difficulties. Reading, writing, listening, and speaking affect performance across all content areas. Therefore, students who struggle with literacy may struggle in all academic areas. Early screening is one way to identify students who are not meeting standards and may have literacy difficulties. Depending on the ages of the students, screening can be given on a range of topics, including alphabetic principle, phonological and phonemic awareness, decoding strategies, fluency, and comprehension. The results of criterion and norm-referenced formal assessments can also be used to identify students who have not met standards. Teachers can look for specific skills and standard areas that students struggled with on these formal assessments. They can also look for indications that students are not meeting their adequate yearly progress goals. Additionally, informal assessments can be used to identify students who are not meeting standards. Classroom observations, running records, responses during literature circles, and other informal assessments are helpful tools for teachers to use. All of these data points can be considered when determining which students may benefit from targeted interventions.

Answer 43

Generally, teachers should collect multiple data points over time before requesting that students be evaluated for potential delays or disabilities. Students may perform below expectations on assessments for a variety of reasons, including illness and fatigue. Therefore, no one assessment score should be used as the basis for an evaluation. However, if students perform similarly on multiple assessments over time, further investigation may be warranted. Assessment data can also be combined with classroom observations for supplementary information. Additionally, interventions can be attempted first to determine if achievement gaps can be closed through targeted instruction. Parents sometimes request that their children be evaluated. Parents are often the first to notice potential issues because they observe their children’s progress from year to year and witness the challenges firsthand. Parents can submit their requests for evaluations in writing to classroom teachers, reading specialists, administrators, or other school officials for consideration.

Answer 44

Literacy interventions should be targeted to students’ individual needs and based upon assessment data. Interventions can be delivered either individually or in small groups, if multiple students can benefit from the same interventions. If commercial intervention programs are used, they should be carefully evaluated to ensure they are research-based. Interventions should be based upon clear objectives. They should also incorporate ways to measure students’ progress to evaluate if the interventions are successful. Pre-tests are commonly given when interventions are implemented, and the results are used to set goals. Student progress is then monitored regularly to determine if progress is being made toward the performance goals. Research has shown that frequent interventions are more effective than infrequent interventions, even if they occur for shorter blocks of time. For example, teachers may conduct small-group interventions daily, for 15 minutes each time. Students need frequent opportunities to practice and apply new skills. Interventions should include a mixture of systematic and explicit instruction and guided practice with feedback. Although students benefit from interventions with classroom teachers and literacy specialists, some carefully selected computer-based interventions may also be used.

Answer 45

Literacy interventions are planned for students based upon assessment data. This initial data is used to set performance goals, and progress toward goals is measured using progress monitoring and intervention post-tests. If students make regular progress and achieve their performance goals within the expected time frames, the interventions are usually considered effective. If students make minimal or no progress toward their goals despite receiving interventions, the interventions may be considered ineffective, unless additional factors are impeding success. However, interventions must be implemented with fidelity to determine their effectiveness. Teachers must use the agreed-upon strategies and instructional methods and meet with students consistently according to their intervention schedules. They must also ensure that the interventions are not interrupted. If issues occur in these areas, lack of student progress may not be the result of ineffective intervention planning. The interventions may have the potential to be successful, but the implementation and delivery methods may need improvement.

Answer 46

Reading strategies and reading interventions are often used interchangeably, but there are some key differences between the two. Reading strategies are methods teachers use to help students learn reading skills. To teach students to comprehend texts, teachers may encourage them to make predictions and inferences. Strategies are taught during regular classroom instruction and may be reinforced individually or in small groups. Meeting informally with a student to review and practice how to make predictions during one class session is not a formal intervention as no set improvement plan, regular meeting schedule, om. progress monitoring assessment is involved. Interventions are specific plans to help students make progress in targeted areas. They are based on assessment data, and they are scheduled for regular, set periods of time. Students’ progress is monitored through frequent assessments to look for improvement. Reading strategies may be taught and practiced as part of formal intervention plans.

Answer 47

Dyslexia is a common disorder that affects reading. Students with dyslexia often have difficulties with phonological awareness, accurate word recognition, decoding, and reading fluency. As a result, they may also have difficulties comprehending what they have read. Spelling may also be affected. Teachers may notice that students struggle to decode words and read fluently, and students may become anxious or frustrated when asked to read. Dyslexia does not affect intelligence and is marked by a gap between students’ abilities and achievements. Although there is no cure for dyslexia, targeted interventions are often successful. A multisensory approach to reading instruction is often helpful, along with systematic and explicit instruction in reading skills and sight word recognition. The Orton-Gillingham method is one commonly used approach. Teachers should also maintain supportive classroom environments and not rush students or force them to read aloud. Students with dyslexia may also benefit from some accommodations, such as extra time on tests, increased wait time when responding to questions, and access to audio versions of texts.

Answer 48

Dysgraphia is a disorder that affects written expression. Students with dysgraphia may have difficulties holding pencils correctly, forming letters, writing on lines, putting thoughts into written words, and organizing writing in meaningful ways. Handwriting and spelling are also commonly difficult for students. Students with dysgraphia may become frustrated or anxious if asked to write, and they may try to avoid writing when possible. There are many ways teachers can assist students with dysgraphia. To assist with spelling, explicit instruction on sound-symbol relationships and spelling patterns may be helpful. Graphic organizers can be provided to assist students with written organization. Additionally, students may qualify for occupational therapy to assist with developing coordination amid motor skills. Students with dysgraphia may also benefit from some accommodations, such as being allowed to type responses or answer questions orally. They may benefit from receiving extra time to complete assignments and tests.

Answer 49

Dyspraxia is a disorder that makes it difficult for the body to coordinate movement. Students with dyspraxia may have difficulties with balance and coordination, and they may have trouble performing tasks that require motor skills. Students with dyspraxia may also be sensitive to noise or touch in addition to spatial or perceptual difficulties, all of which might affect reading and writing. Some types of dyspraxia may also affect language, especially enunciation. In the classroom, teachers can break large, multistep tasks into smaller chunks. If activities require movement, teachers can begin with simple movements first, and gradually increase the difficulty. Teachers can also provide extra processing time when giving directions and extra wait time when asking questions. Some students with dyspraxia may qualify for occupational therapy services. Students with clyspraxia may benefit from certain accommodations, such as seating that is free from noise and distractions.

Answer 50

Students with reading comprehension deficiencies have difficulty understanding and responding to what they have read. They may have difficulty summarizing texts, making inferences, differentiating between main ideas and supporting details, and more. They often have issues with reading fluency as well, especially with phrasing and prosody. Students with comprehension deficiencies can often decode words efficiently, yet they struggle with comprehending the texts’ meanings. However, some students may struggle with both decoding and comprehension. To assist students with comprehension deficiencies, teachers can provide advance organizers that offer overviews of the text structures and story events. They can also preview texts or conduct picture walks to familiarize students with the topics. Before reading, they can instruct students to pay attention to specific key information within the texts. Additionally, teachers can model their use of comprehension strategies during think-alouds and shared reading experiences.

Answer 51

Students with reading retention deficiencies have difficulties remembering what they have read. This may include difficulties summarizing texts, ordering story events, and making text connections after reading. Retention deficiencies may occur due to difficulties transferring information to short- or long-term memory or with difficulties retrieving information that has been previously stored in long-term memory. To assist students with retention difficulties, teachers can provide students with graphic organizers that they can complete while reading. Story maps and sequencing charts are examples of graphic organizers that may be helpful. Teachers can also provide notes and text summaries to assist students with remembering important conceits and details. Additionally, students can be taught to use specific strategies to activate memory, such as visualizing as they read. They can also be taught to annotate texts by highlighting key phrases and taking notes, making it easier to locate important information in the future.

Answer 52

Members of a group have a shared social identity that is formed by reading, writing, listening, and speaking with one another. Group members develop common expressions, mannerisms, and favorite stories that are understood by other members. For example, members of a professional group may use academic language specific to their field at conferences and work events. However, they will not likely use these terms while talking with people outside the field. Additionally, social context plays a role in how people select the appropriate language to use. When asking a stranger for directions, a person would likely consider social norms and begin with an expression like “Excuse me.” When talking with a good friend on the phone, a person might use an informal, joking tone. It is important for people to consider each situation and determine which approach to use. Teachers can provide frequent opportunities for students to communicate with others for a variety of authentic purposes. This can include communicating with classmates, other students and adults within the school, family members, and community members.

Answer 53

Language involves not only the words people say but also the ways in which these words are interpreted by recipients. Differing backgrounds and cultures can affect how messages are received, so it is important for people to consider that others may view communications differently. For example, in some cultures, students are encouraged to ask questions and initiate discussions in class. In others, students are expected to defer to their instructors and not speak unless they are directly questioned. A student who tells an instructor that something doesn’t make sense may be praised for using metacognitive strategies in one class while perceived as being rude in another. Cultural context also affects how nonverbal communications are interpreted. For example, different cultures have their own norms about making eye contact while speaking or the use of gestures during greetings. Teachers should be sensitive to these cultural differences and consider the roles they may play in student participation and communication. Additionally, teachers should help students view situations from multiple perspectives and consider how their attempts at communication may be perceived by others in various situations.

Answer 54

The ways that people use language and interpret language directed toward them is related to their cultures. Additionally, as cultures change over time, so do languages. Existing words can take on new meanings, and new words may be added to languages. These changes sometimes occur as a result of popular culture, including television, video games, and music. As people with different cultural backgrounds interact, they must negotiate these differences to make meaning. Because culture and language are so intertwined, understanding the cultural contexts in which language is used is an important part of learning any new language. English language learners should be taught English skills in context, helping them understand how the language is used in realistic social interactions. Additionally, it is important for teachers to understand the cultural backgrounds of ELLs and the roles their cultures may play in their language interactions and expectations. Teachers should incorporate a variety of teaching strategies and methods into their classrooms to meet the needs of all students.

Answer 55

Advanced readers can display many different characteristics. They are sometimes identified by above-average scores on standardized reading assessments. Other times, observed reading behaviors and performances on classroom assignments can provide clues. Advanced readers typically read fluently and have strong word recognition and decoding abilities. They are also able to flexibly apply a variety of reading strategies to figure out unknown words and meanings. Advanced readers may also have well-developed vocabularies and incorporate varied words into their speech and writing. They may show a strong interest in reading and get deeply immersed in the texts they have selected. Advanced readers often love to talk with others about the books they have read, and they may make connections between the texts and themselves, other texts, and real-world events. Additionally, they are often able to analyze texts using high-level comprehension skills, such as evaluating and drawing conclusions.

Answer 56

High-achieving readers can often benefit from participating in collaborative, project-based learning opportunities that allow them to apply higher-level reading and writing skills with others. Collaborative projects draw upon the strengths and unique problem-solving abilities of all group members and allow high-achieving readers to work with others to solve realistic problems. The projects allow students to share ideas and receive feedback from others of all skill levels, including other high-achieving students who may enjoy analyzing and discussing the same types of complex texts that they do. High-achieving readers can benefit from forming collaborative relationships with teachers. They can be taught to use metacognitive strategies to self-monitor their own reading and set realistic but challenging goals for their own reading and writing development. They can collaborate with teachers to select literacy projects that pertain to their interests. This involvement in the learning process can help high-achieving readers stay interested and engaged in literacy instruction.

Answer 57

High-achieving readers often benefit from having some choices about what and how they learn. This can include choices about the types and topics of texts they explore. For example, if classes are learning about persuasive writing, students may choose the texts they will analyze from a range of genres and topics. Students can also have some choices about the complexity of the projects they complete, with options to delve deeper into topics if desired. For example, if students in a class are identifying characteristics of fairy tales, some students may choose to compare and contrast multiple versions of the same tale and note identifying features. High-achieving readers may also benefit from having choices about the formats of their projects. Possible project ideas include creating multimedia presentations, writing alternative endings to texts, creating three-dimensional artistic representations of story events, and more. These options also accommodate different learning modalities. Teachers may create a menu of options for students to choose from or encourage them to come up with their own ideas. Although students maybe directing some of their own learning, teachers should still conference with high-achieving readers frequently to assess progress and collaborate on ideas.

Answer 58

High-achieving readers are sometimes required to read the same texts as the other students in their classes during reading instruction and in other content areas. Because these texts are often designed for on-level readers, they may be easy for high-achieving readers to decode and comprehend. Without any challenges in the texts, high-achieving readers may finish quickly and possibly become bored. High-achieving readers are also sometimes given extra work to complete when they finish their on-level work early. They may view this extra work as a punishment, and the new work may not be challenging for these students either. Boredom and frustration may then occur. Additionally, high-achieving readers may become bored during whole-class lessons on concepts they have already mastered. For example, readers who are successfully decoding complex multisyllabic words will likely become bored during lessons on CVCe spelling patterns. These high-achieving readers may sometimes appear disengaged, resist coming to school, or have behavior issues within the classroom. To prevent these issues from occurring, teachers can differentiate instruction and provide high-achieving readers with opportunities to read texts within their instructional levels. These students can also be encouraged to complete alternate assignments that are more challenging.

Answer 59

Reading specialists often play a variety of roles within their schools. Some reading specialists serve as intervention teachers. These specialists directly provide targeted intervention services to students who are struggling with reading, often in areas including phonemic awareness, decoding, sight word recognition, and comprehension. They may go into students’ classrooms to provide intervention services, or they may pull students out for a set number of minutes each week. Reading specialists can also provide professional development opportunities for classroom teachers. In small or large-group sessions, they often model how to use instructional strategies that are supported by research. They compile literature and resources related to literacy instruction and make these resources available to teachers. They may also work with individual teachers to develop instructional plans or overcome difficulties with literacy instruction. Reading specialists may also oversee standardized literacy assessments for their schools and train teachers in testing procedures. They work with teachers to analyze assessment data, track students’ progress over time, and use the results to plan or change appropriate interventions.

Answer 60

Reading specialists provide professional development opportunities for teachers on a wide range of topics. For early childhood teachers, reading specialists may offer training about modeling concepts of print, planning phonological and phonemic awareness activities, creating print-rich environments, and designing effective literacy centers. Other topics may include types of reading and writing experiences and using multisensory approaches to reading and writing instruction. Professional development for elementary teachers may include topics such as incorporating reading and writing across content areas, using interactive word walls, using assessment data to guide instruction, modeling comprehension strategies, and designing effective literature circles. For middle and high school teachers, professional development topics may include teaching academic vocabulary, incorporating reading and writing across content areas, teaching text structures, and using higher-level comprehension strategies. Reading specialists may also provide professional development opportunities on specialized topics, such as meeting the needs of students with disabilities and teaching reading strategies to ELLs.

Answer 61

Leveled boolc rooms are consolidated collections of leveled readers that can be checked out by all teachers within a school. Reading specialists often help organize and maintain leveled book rooms as part of their responsibilities. Because teachers frequently have students who read both well above and well below grade level, these types of book rooms ensure that all students have access to books within their instructional reading levels. To implement successful leveled book rooms, books should be clearly organized and labeled according to level. The same leveling system used by classroom teachers should be used in the leveled book rooms for consistency. Books may also be organized in additional ways, such as by genre, topic, or author. Teachers should be taught the procedures for checking out and returning books. Records should be maintained in order to keep track of where all books are located.

Answer 62

Although it is common for classroom teachers to communicate with family members about reading development, reading specialists also play important roles in promoting literacy at home. Reading specialists may conduct family surveys to learn more about home literacy behaviors and to assess parents’ literacy-related needs and concerns. They may help organize school- or district-wide family literacy events. These events offer hands-on literacy activities appropriate for different grade levels that family members can complete with their children and take home for additional practice. They also feature interactive read-alouds that model ways parents can encourage reading behaviors with their children at home. Additionally, reading specialists might be involved in organizing book fairs or lending libraries that supplement their schools’ traditional libraries. They may provide families with information about reading goals and interventions or summer reading programs.

Answer 63

One role of a reading specialist is to promote collaboration among colleagues. A collaborative approach allows colleagues to develop and work toward shared goals. It can increase motivation to implement reading programs with fidelity and help colleagues share strategies to address common problems and concerns. In addition to attending staff meetings, reading specialists can attend grade-level team meetings. Reading specialists can help grade-level teams analyze assessment data to identify areas in need of improvement. Together, the teams can create performance goals that will be used to drive reading instruction. They can collaboratively develop instructional plans and activities to help reach the shared goals. This type of collaborative approach can encourage motivation and accountability. Reading specialists may also look for each colleague’s strengths and note strong examples of research-based reading instruction. They can encourage these colleagues to share their strategies and allow others to observe their teaching. Teachers may also be encouraged to share problems they are having with reading instruction, and colleagues can work together to develop solutions to these problems.

Answer 64

Reading specialists typically have access to assessment data from multiple grade levels and time periods. They can lead data analysis teams that look for trends that may indicate gaps in their schools’ reading curricula. Once these gaps are identified, reading specialists can work with teachers to revise curricula and instructional methods to better address these needs and improve student performance. Reading specialists often also serve on committees to evaluate and select potential reading programs to supplement or replace existing ones. Reading specialists can share their knowledge of research-based approaches to literacy instruction and use this knowledge to evaluate the potential reading programs. Reading specialists also identify external professional development opportunities that may be beneficial for teachers based on their schools’ instructional gaps. They advocate for opportunities for teachers to attend these sessions and share what they have learned with colleagues. Additionally, reading specialists can recruit teachers who are willing to apply and model specific research-based instructional strategies while receiving coaching and support. For example, reading specialists can recruit teachers willing to try interactive word walls or literature circles.

Answer 65

Reading specialists often deal with conflict in their roles. Conflict may occur when introducing new reading programs or helping teachers decide upon new instructional strategies and goals. One role of a reading specialist is to help establish a consensus among the different stakeholders involved, including teachers, administrators, board members, and other school staff. To do so, reading specialists need to be seen as leaders who are respected in their area of expertise but also flexible and willing to listen to new ideas. By listening to suggestions and concerns while also explaining literacy-related research and best practices, reading specialists can help their teams develop shared visions for school reading instruction. They can help other stakeholders understand their roles in achieving these visions by outlining specific but attainable goals and defining the responsibilities of everyone involved. Other stakeholders will be more likely to cooperate with the plans if they understand the role they will play in accomplishing the shared goals.

Answer 66

Instructional decisions have lasting effects on teachers and students. This is especially true when major decisions are made, such as selecting new reading programs. Conflict about instructional strategies and ways to implement change can lead to interpersonal conflict. Therefore, reading specialists who are facilitating these changes must often assist with conflict resolution. Reading specialists can first acknowledge the issues rather than ignore them, recognizing that conflict can be healthy when it leads to open discussions and sharing of ideas. They can then look for the root causes of the conflict. Although the conflicts may be based on personality differences, they may also be based on other issues, such as concerns about adequate time or resources and differing prior experiences. Helping highlight the true issues may lead to discussions about how the concerns can be alleviated. Reading specialists can also bring the discussions back to shared performance goals. Colleagues can be asked to restate the shared goals and the reasons behind them, reminding everyone involved that student success is the focus. Colleagues can then collaborate to find solutions that incorporate the ideas while still addressing the concerns of all parties involved.

Answer 67

It is important for reading specialists to be aware of policies that affect literacy education at the local, state, and national levels. This includes awareness of school board, state government, and US Department of Education policies. Attending local school board meetings and joining professional organizations that track impending legislation are two ways to assist with this goal. Reading specialists can share their knowledge with colleagues and community members and advocate for legislation and policies that support effective reading instruction. Additionally, they can interpret existing legislation for their colleagues and ensure that they understand the implications it has on their classroom instruction. Reading specialists can assist their school districts with writing grants and educational proposals that can positively impact literacy instruction. This may include proposals for funding that can be used to purchase new materials or hire additional reading specialists.

Answer 68

In colonial and early America, reading education focused on memorization. Students were expected to memorize the alphabet, syllables, words, verses, and poems. The poems and verses were recited in front of others for fluency practice. In the 1800s, a more systematic approach to reading instruction was introduced. This included systematic phonics, sight word instruction, and reading across content areas. McGuffey Readers were a series of leveled primers commonly used for reading instruction. In the late 1800s, the idea of reading for meaning began to be promoted. In the early 1900s, the focus continued to be on reading for meaning and purpose. Explicit and systematic phonics instruction was common. In the mid-1900s, basal readers became commonplace in schools. Basal readers contained leveled stories that were followed by comprehension questions, with separate phonics skill and drill activities. In the 1980s, whole language was promoted. Proponents believed children would learn to read by being immersed in reading and writing experiences rather than using explicit phonics instruction. By the niid-1990s, a balanced approach to literacy instruction was common. Balanced literacy includes a combination of explicit and systematic phonics instruction and immersion in authentic reading and writing experiences.

Answer 69

Beliefs about the best ways to teach reading have evolved over the years. It was once believed that children are passive receivers of knowledge, and memorization and skill-and-drill approaches to reading instruction were common. Later, theorists suggested that children are active learners who construct their own meaning through scaffolded problem-solving. Literacy instruction transitioned to focusing on reading and writing for authentic purposes. Current research supports the idea that students are actively involved in the learning process. They should have opportunities to read and write for authentic purposes while also receiving systematic and explicit phonics instruction. Research also indicates that although children progress through typical stages of literacy development, learning is an individualized process. Differing prior knowledge and learning styles can affect the paths children take to becoming proficient readers and writers. Assessment is viewed as an important tool for helping ensure that learning is differentiated and individual student needs are met. Additionally, research indicates that language and literacy development have social components, and students benefit from opportunities to interact and collaborate with others for a variety of authentic purposes.

Answer 70

The theory of behaviorism was shaped by several individuals, including Ivan Pavlov and B. F. Skinner. Popular in the early to mid-1900s, it centers around the belief that learners respond to external stimuli. If behaviors are reinforced, they will continue. Reinforcement maybe positive, which occurs when stimuli are added after desired behaviors are demonstrated. Rewards and praise for completing assignments are examples of positive reinforcement. Reinforcement may also be negative, which occurs when stimuli are removed after desired behaviors are demonstrated. When teachers stop giving stern reminders to students after they begin their independent reading, negative reinforcement has occurred. According to behaviorism, punishments are used to decrease undesirable behaviors. Taking away manipulatives from students who are misusing them is an example of using punishment to decrease undesirable behaviors. Learning theory has evolved over time, and research now indicates that students are more actively involved in constructing meaning than suggested by behaviorism. Yet some tenets can still be applied to reading instruction. Teachers should be careful not to criticize or punish students for errors made during reading. Effort and use of reading strategies should be supported and encouraged.

Answer 71

Cognitivism became popular in the 1960s after the rise of behaviorism. Rather than believing that children are passive receivers of knowledge, cognitivism argued that there are many internal processes that affect learning. When students are confronted with new information, they attempt to make sense of it based on prior knowledge and other factors. Information that catches students’ attention may proceed from sensory memory to short-term memory, where it must be processed and encoded to be transferred to long-term memory. Cognitivism has many implications for reading instruction. Teachers should remember that learning to read is an active process. To facilitate memory transfer, students should have prior knowledge activated before reading. Attention must also be drawn to key information. This may be done using advance organizers, bolded text, or other cueing techniques. Information should also be broken into manageable chunks, and students should have opportunities to repeatedly practice new knowledge and skills. If too much information is presented at once, cognitive overload may occur. If students do not have opportunities to practice newly learned knowledge or skills, it may be forgotten. Teachers should ensure that they allow adequate opportunities for guided practice and feedback.

Answer 72

Piaget’s theory suggests that all children go through the same four stages of cognitive development, yet the rate at which they proceed through the stages may vary somewhat. From birth until about two years of age, children are in the sensorimotor stage. Children in this stage explore the world around them using their senses, including grabbing and chewing objects. At first, children’s behaviors are caused by reflexes. Gradually, they learn that their behaviors can influence their environments, and they begin experimenting with different behaviors. They learn object permanence, meaning they understand that things still exist even when they are not visible. The preoperational stage lasts from age two until about age seven. In this stage, children begin thinking symbolically. They engage in symbolic play and begin using words to represent what they want. Children in this stage are egocentric and have trouble seeing other people’s perspectives. The concrete operational stage lasts from age seven until about age twelve. In this stage, children begin to think logically but may still struggle with abstract ideas. They begin becoming less egocentric. In the formal operational stage, which begins around age 12 and continues into adulthood, people are capable of abstract and logical thoughts.

Answer 73

Young children in the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development benefit from exploring types of books designed for this age group. This includes board books and cloth books containing different textures and materials to manipulate. By exploring these books using their senses, children will enjoy their first reading experiences. Children in the preoperational stage begin to think symbolically. The alphabetic principle can be explored in this stage. Children can also explore the purposes of punctuation marks and illustrations included in texts. They can explore using different types of texts to accomplish different purposes, such as writing letters to communicate with friends. Children in the concrete operational stage begin to think logically. Students in this stage can explore literary elements and text structures. They can also analyze texts deeply and comprehend relationships like cause and effect. By the formal operational stage, students should be reading and analyzing a variety of complex texts for personal and academic reasons.

Answer 74

Schema theory suggests that when people learn new concepts, the new knowledge gets organized into units called schemata. These schemata include all of the information that is known about the concepts. For example, a young child’s schema about cars might include knowing that they are used for transportation, they have four wheels and one steering wheel, and they are painted a variety of colors. These schemata are connected to one another when knowledge overlaps. For example, the child’s schema about cars may be connected to his or her schema about motorcycles, which the child knows also have wheels and are used for transportation. When encountering new information, people look to existing schemata to make sense of the new knowledge. Schema theory has several implications for reading instruction, It demonstrates the importance of activating prior knowledge before reading. Students can be asked what they already know about the topics of new texts. They can also complete know, want, and learn (KWL) charts to identify, what they already know and want to learn about the topics. Additionally, students can be encouraged to make text connections. This may include text-to-self, text-to-text, and text-to-world connections.

Answer 75

According to Piaget, people have existing schemata, or units of knowledge, about concepts they have learned. They look to these existing schemata to make sense of new information they encounter. Sometimes the newly encountered information fits within an existing schema and is added to it. For example, if a student has an existing schema about baseball and learns a new rule he or she did not previously know, he or she may add this new information to the schema. This is known as assimilation. However, sometimes the newly encountered information challenges the existing schema. If this occurs, the existing schema must be altered. For example, a student may have an existing schema about a historical figure based on readings he or she has done from one person’s perspective. Based on these prior readings, he or she may view the figure as a hero. However, the student may then read a book about the figure written from a different perspective, which highlights the negative impacts of the figure’s actions on others. This new knowledge may challenge the student’s existing schema and cause him or her to alter it. This is known as accommodation. Teachers should model and encourage evaluating texts and consider how they affirm or challenge existing beliefs.

Answer 76

Lev Vygotsky played a leading role in the development of the constructivist learning theory. According to Vygotsky, children interact in social and cultural contexts. Through their social interactions with others in these contexts, cognitive development takes place. Therefore, social interaction plays a large role in learning. Teachers can consider how to incorporate social learning experiences into reading instruction. This may include shared and interactive reading and writing experiences, collaborative projects, reader’s theater, and literature circles. Vygotsky also suggested that learning takes place when students are engaged in activities in their zones of proximal development. These are activities that students are almost able to complete independently, but they require some scaffolding or collaboration. Vygotsky explained that scaffolding should be provided by others who have higher abilities in the tasks being completed. These individuals might be teachers, parents, or other classmates. Teachers can differentiate learning activities to ensure they are within students’ zones of proximal development rather than being too easy or too difficult. For example, they can select hooks in students’ instructional reading levels for guided reading groups. Teachers can use assessments to determine how to differentiate instruction for each student.

Answer 77

The constructivist theory was influenced by several people, including John Dewey, Jean Piaget, and Lev Vygotsky. Constructivism suggests that learning is an active process. Rather than passively receiving knowledge from their teachers, students actively construct their own meaning through learning experiences. Meaning may differ among individual students because they each have unique prior knowledge and experiences. According to constructivism, students learn by solving real-world problems; gathering, synthesizing, and evaluating information; and testing ideas. Constructivism plays an important role in reading instruction. When analyzing texts, teachers can encourage students to draw upon prior knowledge, consider if any existing assumptions have been challenged, and share their unique understandings with others. Teachers can also encourage students to use reading to solve realistic problems through problem-based learning activities. They can also give students some choices regarding the activities and methods used. Rather than directing all phases of assignments, teachers can instead use more collaborative approaches and provide scaffolding to students as needed.

Answer 78

Marie Clay’s literacy processing theory has many underlying tenets. It suggests that all children approach learning to read with different background knowledge and experiences, which results in students taking different paths to becoming proficient readers and writers. It also suggests that reading and writing are complex and interrelated experiences, and children must read and write authentic texts to learn. Additionally, it suggests that learning to read and write are active processes, and children help create their own meanings. Early childhood teachers should consider that all students have unique prior knowledge and experiences. They can assess students’ skills and build upon their existing strengths. Additionally, if students are struggling with specific literacy skills, interventions can be implemented to address students’ needs. Marie Clay promoted running records as one tool that can be used to identify strategy deficits and plan interventions. Teachers can also give students frequent opportunities to read amid write authentic texts in addition to phonics instruction. Additionally, they can use these texts to model and teach concepts of print and decoding and comprehension strategies.

Answer 79

John Dewey greatly influenced the constructivist theory of education. Dewey believed that people are active learners who learn by doing rather than passively receiving knowledge. He believed that valuable instructional time is wasted in schools by attempts to passively transmit knowledge. Additionally, he believed that for the teaching of symbolic concepts to be effective, students need opportunities to explore the symbols in context. Dewey’s beliefs have shaped the way reading instruction occurs today. Students are expected to be active learners who complete word work activities, problem-solve to decode and encode texts, and critically analyze a variety of text types. Children are commonly engaged in guided reading groups in which they must apply strategies to decode and comprehend real stories. They are also asked to construct their own meaning from texts by activating prior knowledge and making personal connections. When teaching symbolic relationships like the alphabetic principle, students are given opportunities to explore these relationships using real words and texts.

Answer 80

David Perkins theorized that humans have three types of intelligence. Neural intelligence is determined by genetics and cannot be changed. It is sometimes measured using IQ tests. Experiential intelligence is developed by the types of experiences one has. For example, a child who grows up in a big city may have knowledge of how to read subway maps and bus schedules. Having diverse experiences increases experiential intelligence. Reflective intelligence refers to a person’s ability to problem-solve and reason. It also involves self-awareness and the use of metacognitive strategies. Unlike neural intelligence, experiential and reflective intelligence can be grown and developed over time. Teachers can consider this theory when planning reading instruction. They can create literacy-rich environments using varied activities and types of texts. These varied experiences can help students develop experiential knowledge. Print, digital texts, and media can be used to help students experience things that are distant from their own communities. Teachers can also model and encourage the use of metacognitive and problem-solving strategies.

Answer 81

Howard Gardner theorized that there are multiple types of intelligences. According to his theory, people have different strengths and prefer to represent knowledge in different ways. He outlined eight different types of intelligences. Visual-spatial intelligence includes the ability to visualize things easily, such as charts and maps. Linguistic-verbal intelligence refers to strength in using language for reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Logical-mathematical intelligence refers to the ability to reason, solve problems, and recognize patterns, often with numbers. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence refers to skilled coordination and movement. Musical intelligence refers to the ability to recognize rhythm, sound, beat, and other musical elements. Interpersonal intelligence refers to the ability to interact effectively with others. Intrapersonal intelligence refers to strong self-awareness. Naturalistic intelligence refers to a strong understanding of nature. Gardner explained that each person may demonstrate characteristics of multiple types of intelligence. Teachers can consider Gardner’s theory when planning instruction. They can use a multisensory approach to literacy instruction and also incorporate music, art, movement, problem-solving, collaboration, and other experiences. They can allow students choices in the topics they read and write about and allow them to present their learning in different ways.

Answer 82

Rosenblatt’s Transactional Theory of the Literary Work suggests that reading involves a transaction between the reader and the text. Each reader brings unique prior knowledge and experiences to the reading experience. These differences affect how the text is interpreted and the meaning that is made. Different readers may make different meaning from the same texts. Therefore, there is no one fixed meaning in any text. Instead, the meaning is determined by the reader’s transaction with the text. This theory suggests that readers must be active participants in the reading process to make meaning. For example, they should be encouraged to activate prior knowledge, self-monitor understanding, and make connections before, during, and after reading. They should be encouraged to analyze texts deeply, and the close reading process may assist with this goal. Because different students may interpret texts differently, literature circles and other opportunities to discuss meaning can be beneficial. Students can be encouraged to share what prior experiences and text clues helped guide their interpretations.

Answer 83

Kenneth Goodman explained that reading involves the interaction between thinking and language. Beginning readers do not approach new texts already knowing how to read all of the words. Instead, they combine their thinking with available language clues to guess what the words say. By analyzing what readers guess and the errors that they make, teachers can gain insights into students’ thinking and the cues they are using. They can identify if students are using or ignoring the graphophonic, syntactic, and semantic cueing systems. Goodman also explained that teachers should observe students’ reading behaviors to gain further insight into the reasons for their miscues. For example, teachers must determine if the errors are made due to lack of knowledge, such as not knowing how to decode certain consonant blends, or carelessness, such as reading too quickly. The socio-psycholinguistic theory supports the use of running records to record reading behaviors and miscues. The results of the running records can be used to provide targeted instruction in using specific cueing systems.

Answer 84

Qualitative research is usually used to gather subjective information about people’s opinions or understandings about things. Qualitative research can often be used to answer the questions what and why. Information may be gathered through focus groups, interviews, and observations. Researchers gather information in a neutral manner to ensure they do not influence the opinions of the subjects. Qualitative research could be used to determine reasons why teachers have abandoned a particular reading program, for example. This information could be used to revise the program to better meet teachers’ needs and address concerns. Quantitative research is used to gather numerical data that can be used to identify patterns and relationships. It can also be used to form generalizations and draw conclusions. For example, quantitative research could be used to identify if specific literacy interventions are leading to increased standardized test scores.

Answer 85

With the ease with which people are able to post things on the Internet, abundant and often contradictory information about best practices in education can be found. Much of this information is not reliably tested. However, there are some characteristics that identify valid reading research, which teachers should use when making instructional decisions. Reading research should be reliable. This means that other researchers should be able to replicate the research studies and get the same results. Research that relies on qualitative responses are more subjective and may be less lilcely to be replicated with the same results. This reliability should be taken into consideration when evaluating research. Reading research should also be valid, meaning the instruments should be designed to measure what they are supposed to measure. The research should also be credible. This means the research uses appropriate methodology, data collection, and analysis.

Answer 86

There are many sources of valid reading research available. This research is sometimes available for free. Other times, paid subscriptions or enrollment in academic institutions is required to access the information. The U.S. Department of Education provides information about reading research and statistics on its website. This includes information related to current reading programs, literacy progress, and more. There are also many education-related journals that contain information about reading research. Peer-reviewed journals help ensure that the research is reliable and valid. Examples include Language Arts, published by the National Council of Teachers of English, and the Harvard Educational Review, published by the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Many of these journals are available online and are sometimes also available in print form. There are also multiple databases containing reading research. One example is the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC). These databases are available online and are also commonly available in the libraries of educational institutions.

Answer 87

There are many different theories of personality that attempt to explain differences in the ways people perceive the world and interact with those around them. One common tool to assess personality type is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Based on Carl Jung’s personality theory, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator outlines four different scales that affect personality. The first scale ranges from introversion to extroversion. Introverts gain energy from time alone and quiet reflection, whereas extroverts gain energy from interacting with others. The second scale ranges from sensing to intuition. People on the sensing side of the scale learn from interacting with their senses, whereas people on the intuition side rely on instincts. The third scale ranges from thinking to feeling. People on the thinking side apply logic and questioning to make decisions, whereas people on the feeling side rely more on their emotions and values. The fourth scale ranges from judging to perceiving. People on the judging side of the scale prefer routine and order, whereas those on the perceiving side prefer a more laid-back approach.

Answer 88

Teachers should consider the role that personality types play in how students learn and interact with others. Information observed about students’ personality types can help teachers plan differentiated instruction that meets the needs of all students. Classes typically include students on a range of the introversion-extroversion scale. Students who are more introverted may not enjoy reading instruction if they are continually asked to read aloud or perform in groups. However, students who are more extroverted may not enjoy reading instruction if only given opportunities to read independently and complete individual assignments. Additionally, some students think logically and may instinctively turn to text evidence for support of answers. They may have more difficulties responding personally to texts. On the other hand, students who rely more on feeling may respond to texts emotionally yet need encouragement to support answers with evidence. Personality type can also affect how students perceive classroom routines and procedures. Some students may prefer detailed routines for reading groups and centers, whereas others may prefer more laid-back approaches. Being aware of students’ personalities can help teachers plan a mixture of activity types and give students the support they need to succeed, in situations outside of their comfort zones.

Answer 89

There are several learning behaviors applicable to all subject areas that support literacy learning. Some of these behaviors include following oral and written directions, interacting appropriately with other learners, displaying curiosity and asking questions, attempting to solve complex problems, reasoning, and focusing on learning tasks. These learning behaviors support literacy development by encouraging students to seek information to answer questions and solve realistic problems. They also support the collaboration needed to participate in shared problem-based learning activities and analysis of texts in literature circles. Focus on learning tasks also helps students develop reading stamina and the ability to complete literacy-related projects. Additionally, students who attempt to reason independently may find it easier to comprehend complex texts without assistance. Age-appropriate reading, writing, listening, and speaking behaviors also help students convey and understand meaning. These behaviors include listening purposefully, organizing thoughts before writing and speaking, and monitoring understanding.

Answer 90

Benjamin Bloom outlined a hierarchy of skills in each of three learning domains, including the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. The domain most often applied to classroom instruction is the cognitive domain. In the cognitive domain, skills are ranked in the following order: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Knowledge is the lowest-level skill, whereas evaluation is the highest. Reading specialists and classroom teachers should consider Bloom’s Taxonomy while designing instruction and assessments. Learning objectives should include specific verbs in the taxonomy that accurately describe what students are expected to be able to do at the end of instruction. Objectives should include skills in all levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy, not just the lower levels. When reading nonfiction texts, for example, students may answer some basic recall questions. However, they may also be asked to evaluate authors’ claims and support their evaluations with evidence. Higher-level thinking skills are important for close reading activities, and they help students more deeply comprehend their reading.

Answer 91

Balanced literacy programs teach students a variety of reading skills and strategies that can be used to decode and comprehend texts. They include a mixture of systematic and explicit skills instruction and opportunities to read and write texts for authentic purposes. Balanced literacy programs include instruction in phonological awareness. This is important because phonological awareness abilities are key indicators of future reading success. Systematic and explicit phonics instruction is also an important part of balanced literacy programs. Phonics skills are used to help students both decode and encode texts. Reading fluency is also modeled and pm’acticed in balanced literacy programs. Additionally, vocabulary is another component. Students receive explicit instruction in using context and morphological clues to figure out the meanings of unknown words. They also build connections among meanings of related words. Comprehension strategies are also taught and practiced as part of balanced literacy programs.

Answer 92

Phonics-based reading programs use a bottom-up approach to instruction. Proponents of this approach believe that children learn best when instruction progresses from part to whole. They first teach children to identify letters and letter sounds. Next, they progress to teaching students to decode single words. Later, they decode sentences and longer texts. Whole language reading programs use a top-down approach. Proponents of this approach believe children learn best from being immersed in authentic texts. They believe that by exploring these texts, children gradually learn the rules and patterns of language. Teaching phonics helps students learn to decode and encode words and see relationships among spelling patterns. Rapid decoding also assists with fluency. However, if phonics skills are only taught in isolation, students miss out on opportunities to engage with texts and develop comprehension strategies. The whole language approach helps students understand how reading and writing are used to convey meaning for authentic purposes. However, some students may struggle with learning the rules and patterns needed to effectively decode and encode words. Research indicates that systematic and explicit phonics instruction and opportunities to read and write authentic texts are both important. Both should be components of balanced literacy programs.

Answer 93

There are several different systems that are used to level books. Lexile measures consider both text complexity and word frequency to level books. Specialized assessments are used to determine students’ Lexile levels, which can then be used to select appropriate books. Irene Fountas and Gay Su Pinnell developed another system for leveling books based on their recommendations for guided reading groups. Their system, sometimes known as guided reading levels, considers several factors to assign book levels. These factors include word frequency, sentence complexity, vocabulary, and text features. Running records can help identify guided reading levels. The Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA), also provides a system for leveling books. Students can take the BRA to determine their instructional reading levels. Results can then be used to select books using the DRA system. Because there are many different leveling systems, conversion charts are available online to help teachers and parents identify book levels using their preferred systems.

Answer 94

Flexible groupings are one way that teachers can differentiate instruction. When using flexible grouping, teachers strategically group students together to accomplish specific instructional goals. The groups may be large or small, and they vary depending on the activity. For example, a teacher may work with a small group of students who are all having difficulties with cause-and-effect relationships. The teacher is able to target instruction in this skill area to only the students who need extra practice. Guided reading groups are also flexible because students typically progress through instructional reading levels at different rates. Teachers can use both formal and informal assessment data to group students. Flexible groupings have several benefits. They allow students to receive targeted instruction, often in small-group settings that allow for more teacher interaction. Students who have mastered these skills are able to work on other things, preventing them from becoming bored or frustrated. Additionally, students may feel more comfortable participating in small groups of their peers. Flexible groupings also mean that students will have opportunities to work with many other students throughout the year.

Answer 95

When determining when and how to group students for instructional purposes, teachers should take many factors into consideration. They should consider what instructional goals they want to accomplish. These goals are often based upon specific learning objectives. Once teachers know what goals they want to accomplish, they can consider what types of groupings to use. Possibilities include partner learning as well as small or large group instruction. Teachers also need to consider the characteristics of the students in each group. For example, teachers may group students who need to practice specific skills together to target instruction. Other times, they may group students who have differing perspectives on topics to facilitate active discussion and sharing of viewpoints. These decisions should support the learning objectives. Teachers also need to consider what types of learning activities to use within the groups. Additionally, they need to consider what roles students will be assigned within their groups, if any. It is common for classrooms to use a variety of grouping arrangements throughout the year to accomplish different instructional goals.

Answer 96

Literacy centers are important components of balanced literacy programs. They allow students to practice literacy skills on a regular basis while also allowing teachers time to work with small groups for guided reading instruction. Teachers typically create routines that allow students to rotate through some or all of the centers each day. Sometimes they are given choices over which centers to visit. Other times, teachers may direct students to proceed through the centers in predetermined orders for management purposes. There are several common centers in literacy-rich classrooms. Independent reading centers include several texts of various genres for students to read by themselves, usually in relaxing and comfortable environments. Listening centers contain digital texts and headphones. Technology centers contain computers and/or tablets for literacy games, digital presentations, research, and more. Word work centers contain activities and manipulatives that allow students to explore how words and sentences are put together. Writing centers contain paper, dictionaries, and other materials students can use for writing. Partner reading centers provide places for students to read with one another. Early childhood classrooms may also contain sensory and dramatic play centers. Additionally, classrooms contain designated areas where teachers can meet with small groups for guided reading.

Answer 97

Guided reading groups are important components of balanced literacy programs because they allow students to receive differentiated, small-group instruction on a routine basis. However, they may be ineffective if frequent interruptions or classroom management issues occur. Clearly established and practiced routines can prevent these issues from occurring. Students who are not working with their teachers in guided reading groups should be engaged in activities they are able to successfully complete either independently or with the help of their peers. If center rotations are being used, students should know in what order to proceed through the centers and what the expectations are for each rotation. Additionally, routines should be in place for how to solve problems without interrupting the guided reading groups. There should be clear criteria in place for when the teachers can be interrupted, such as in the case of emergencies. Students should be taught how to independently access any materials they may need to complete their activities. Hand signals or sign-out sheets may be utilized to minimize interruptions when students need permission to leave the classroom. Students can also be taught to ask a set number of classmates for assistance with problems before asking their teachers.

Answer 98

It is important to establish clear routines and expectations for literacy centers at the beginning of each school year. If several literacy centers will be included, they should be gradually introduced a few at a time, especially for younger students. When introducing each center, teachers should discuss and model expected center behavior. This includes explaining whether or not group work is allowed, how the materials should be properly used, and how to correctly complete the center activities. Each center’s materials should be clearly labeled and be housed in designated locations. Clear procedures should be in place for how students should rotate through the centers, minimizing confusion and overcrowding at each location. Countdown timers can be clearly displayed on projectors while students are working, providing warnings when it is time to clean up and rotate. Both auditory and visual clues can be provided to assist with transitions. Teachers can also occasionally rotate center activities to allow students to practice newly learned skills and prevent boredom. However, teachers should model how to complete the new activities before asking students to do them independently during center time. This is especially important for young students who may not be able to read directions independently.

Answer 99

Record keeping can assist teachers with assessing students’ progress over time and differentiating instruction. Some teachers prefer to keep separate folders for each student. These folders may contain assessment data and work samples from throughout the year. Other teachers prefer to keep separate folders for each topic. For example, a teacher may have one guided reading folder that contains a list of students’ current instructional reading levels and the skills that have been highlighted in each guided reading mini-lesson. There are many types of records that may be useful. Copies of running records can be used to indicate students’ growth in the use of reading strategies over time. Anecdotal records can provide information about observed reading behaviors and areas that need further instruction. Lists of students’ reading levels and flexible grouping charts can assist teachers with planning guided reading groups. Writing portfolios can be used to demonstrate progress in writing, and they may be organized by genre, chronology, or other means. Dating each writing piece can assist teachers and students with observing growth. Teachers may also keep records of literacy center schedules to ensure that students have opportunities to rotate through each center regularly.

Answer 100

Implementing reading programs with fidelity means using them as the program developers intended. This includes following the intended pacing guides, incorporating all recommended instructional components, using the materials as intended, and more. Fidelity is necessary if reading programs are to be effectively evaluated after implementation. If not implemented with fidelity, unfavorable results may be due to causes unrelated to the quality of the programs. For example, students’ comprehension scores may decline if teachers repeatedly skip the recommended comprehension components due to time constraints. Additionally, implementing the programs with fidelity helps ensure that students receive the research-based instruction promised by the programs. Presenting lessons out of sequence, omitting portions of instruction, and other changes may negatively affect the quality of instruction. However, teachers sometimes have concerns with using reading programs exactly as intended. They may believe that some lessons are ineffective for their students, based on what they know about their students’ prior knowledge and existing skills. Logistical issues, such as available time and resources, may also interfere with implementing programs with fidelity. When making instructional decisions, teachers and administrators must carefully weigh the program recommendations with their own beliefs about their students and best teaching practices.

Answer 101

There are numerous reading programs available, so educators should take several factors into consideration when determining which programs are best for their districts and schools. The selected programs should be based on reliable and valid research about how students learn best. Information should be provided about the research and educational philosophies the programs are based upon. Additionally, the selected programs should address all components of balanced literacy instruction, including phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary development, and comprehension. Teacher guides should be available, with plans for systematic instruction using developmentally appropriate pacing guides. Frequent opportunities for explicit instruction, guided practice, and extension activities should be included in the instructional plans. Reading programs should also contain plans and materials to help teachers differentiate instruction. The programs should offer support for struggling, on-level, and advanced readers as well as ELLs. Leveled texts and tips for differentiating lesson plans maybe included. Selected reading programs should offer adequate professional development opportunities to help teachers use the programs successfully.

Answer 102

Before selecting and implementing new reading programs, districts should consider the instructional and performance gaps they hope to address. By analyzing current performance data and identifying areas in need of improvement, districts can establish specific and measurable goals for their reading instruction. These goals can be used to select appropriate programs and to evaluate their effectiveness over time. By comparing data related to the goals from both before and after the new programs are implemented, districts can determine if the gaps are shrinking. For example, a district may determine that many of its elementary students are not meeting grade-level expectations for reading fluency on standardized state tests. They may determine that one goal for their new reading program is to increase the percentage of elementary students who meet grade-level expectations for fluency by a certain amount over the next two years. They may then select a reading program that features daily fluency instruction and leveled texts for fluency practice. The district can then analyze the data from the same tests over the next few years to determine if the percentage of students who met grade level expectations for fluency increased by the expected amount.

Answer 103

Strategic planning and ongoing support are both necessary for new program implementation to be successful. Rushing the process initially or tapering off support too soon can lead to frustration and poor results. It is important to have trusted reading specialists, administrators, or other educators who are well trained in the programs before they are introduced to teachers. These specialists should be available to address concerns and anxiety about the changes. These specialists should also share the research supporting the new programs and the district objectives they are designed to support. Districts should provide opportunities within teachers’ workdays to learn how to use the new programs rather than requiring them to explore the programs on their own time. The trainings should be carefully planned to maximize the use of teachers’ limited time. Teachers should have opportunities to observe other teachers who are already using the programs effectively. It is also important to provide frequent support throughout the duration of each program rather than tapering off support after the initial training period. Educators should have ongoing opportunities to share successful strategies and discuss concerns with others. Support specialists should also be easily accessible when needed.