Assessment and Instructional Design Making Flashcards
Describe the cloze reading procedure, and explain the benefits of cloze reading instruction.
Cloze reading is an instructional strategy in which students read brief
passages containing omitted words. They rely on background
knowledge, semantic clues, and/or syntactic clues to determine the
unknown words.
When designing doze reading passages, teachers should consider a few
key factors. The passages should be at the appropriate reading levels for the students. Students should be able to guess the omitted words by using reading strategies. If students need additional scaffolding to determine the missing words, word banks can be provided.
Cloze reading activities can be clone independently or with partners.
They can also be done as whole-class activities, with teachers reading
the main passages and students supplying the missing words.
Cloze reading has several benefits. It requires students to use a variety
of reading strategies, including using context clues, to determine the
missing words. Students also cross-check their use of cueing systems to
determine unknown words in doze passages. If students read the
passages multiple times to determine the missing words, it builds
fluency as well.
Describe the language experience approach to reading instruction.
The language experience approach focuses on using students’ own
experiences as the topics of literacy experiences. Students think about
experiences they would like to share. They dictate the experiences to
teachers, who write the students’ words down in front of them. The
teachers then read the texts aloud while pointing to each word,
modeling appropriate fluency. Students are then invited to join the
teachers in rereading the texts.
The language experience approach can also be done as a whole-class
activity, with classes writing about shared experiences together. For
example, they could write about projects recently completed at school.
Teachers help students generate ideas for what to include and list
relevant vocabulary words that may be used. Students then dictate
sentences to their teachers, who record them on chart paper.
The classes then reread the texts multiple times.
A benefit of the language experience approach is that it involves reading, writing, listening, and speaking. It also builds upon students’ prior knowledge and interests. If students are given multiple opportunities to reread the texts they have created, it also assists with fluency.
Describe guided reading instruction, and explain how it is beneficial for reading development.
Guided reading is an important part of any balanced literacy program.
During guided reading, teachers arrange students in flexible groups
and meet with each group separately. While meeting with each group,
teachers provide students with their own copies of leveled texts that are
within their instructional reading levels. Before reading, teachers
conduct picture walks, pre-teach vocabulary, and review strategies that
will be helpful when reading the given texts. Students then read the texts independently in whisper voices while the teachers observe and make notes about students’ reading. After students have read the texts
independently, the teachers conduct mini-lessons on skills that are
targeted in the texts, such as specific spelling patterns that are
repeatedly used. Students then take the texts to reread later, helping
build fluency.
The flexible nature of guided reading groups ensures that students are
always reading books within their instructional reading levels. Because
the groups are small, teachers also have frequent opportunities to
observe students’ use of reading strategies, make notes about their
progress, and determine which skills need additional practice. Guided
reading also allows teachers to deliver targeted mini-lessons to groups
of students with similar needs.
Describe shared reading experiences, and explain their role in literacy development.
During shared reading experiences, teachers read aloud to students
using materials like large print books, texts written on chart paper, and
projected texts. Students follow along as teachers read and point to each word. Shared reading is an interactive experience, and teachers stop frequently to ask questions and model use of strategies. Depending on the ages and reading levels of the students, teachers focus on different teaching points. For example, kindergarten teachers may model and discuss concepts of print, whereas teachers of students in older grades may model and discuss comprehension strategies. Students may join the teachers in reading the texts as well.
Shared reading can be used across all subject areas and has several
benefits. It allows students to see teachers modeling the use of reading
strategies and practice using these strategies with scaffolding. It also
allows students to participate in reading and discussing quality texts
that they may not yet be able to read independently. Students learn
about text features like punctuation marks and spelling patterns that
they can incorporate into their own writing. They also have
opportunities to hear examples affluent reading.
Describe read-alouds, and explain how they differ from shared reading experiences.
During read-alouds, teachers read texts aloud to students. Depending
on their purposes for reading, they may or may not pause to model the
use of strategies or ask questions. Some read-alouds may be done
strictly for entertainment purposes, whereas others may be done to
provide background knowledge in content areas or allow for the
modeling of reading strategies.
The key difference between read-alouds and shared reading experiences is that students do not have access to the texts during read-alouds. They listen as teachers read aloud, and they are sometimes shown the pictures. The focus is on listening to the texts and the teachers’ use of strategies; students do not join in reading.
Explain the benefits of independent daily reading time, and describe how it can be incorporated in the classroom.
Independent daily reading has several benefits. Reading self-selected
books can boost engagement with reading and help students develop a
love of reading. When given opportunities to reread favorite texts,
fluency may also increase. Independent reading also gives students
opportunities to apply reading strategies to new texts autonomously.
Books for independent reading are usually self-selected. Students in the
early stages of reading development who cannot read texts
independently can be encouraged to “read the pictures.” Teachers can
model how to use prior knowledge and picture clues to tell the stories in their own words. Students who are able to read the words can be
encouraged to select appropriate texts for independent reading time.
Depending on the ages of the students, teachers may need to help
readers build reading stamina. They can schedule a few minutes of daily
independent reading time early in the school year and gradually add
additional minutes. Teachers may schedule whole-class independent
reading time or establish it as one station for students to complete
during literacy stations.
Students can also be encouraged to have book boxes that contain several texts at the appropriate reading levels for use during independent reading time.
Explain the role that non-contextual strategies play in vocabulary development, and describe some instructional methods to help students use these strategies.
Non-contextual strategies are used when new vocabulary is learned
without seeing or hearing the words in context. For example, teachers
may give students lists of new vocabulary words they have not yet
encountered in texts. The teachers may ask students to define the words, use them in sentences, and memorize them. Quizzes may then be given in which students must match the words to their definitions or provide examples of the terms.
There are times teachers may use non-contextual vocabulary strategies,
such as when students are learning content-specific words that are not
often found naturally in texts. When studying parts of speech, for
example, teachers may have students memorize the definitions of noun, verb, and adjective. These words are important for students’
understanding of sentence structure, yet students are not likely to
encounter these words written in texts with contextual clues. However,
it is recommended that teachers do use contextual strategies whenever
possible.
Students can be taught to use tools such as dictionaries to define
unknown words when contextual clues are not available. They can be
prompted to draw pictures to explain word meanings or use graphic
organizers to show the relationships among words.
Explain the role that contextual strategies play in vocabulary development, and describe some instructional methods to help students use these strategies.
Contextual strategies are used to determine the meanings of unknown
vocabulary words when they are encountered in context. The ability to
use these strategies to quickly determine word meanings is important
for both reading fluency and comprehension. Because words can have
multiple meanings, readers also need to use contextual strategies to
determine which meaning makes sense in a given sentence.
Teachers can explicitly teach students about the different types of
contextual clues often found in sentences. They can encourage students to highlight the words and phrases that provide clues about meanings of the vocabulary words.
Contextual clues often include synonyms or antonyms for the unknown
vocabulary words. Therefore, when introducing new words, teachers
can assist students with creating lists of synonyms and antonyms.
Teachers can also ask students to solve analogies or determine which
word does not belong when given a group of related words. These
activities will help students recognize synonyms and antonyms and
understand relationships among words when they are encountered in
context.
Explain some criteria that teachers should consider when selecting vocabulary words for instruction.
Vocabulary words can be divided into three tiers. Teachers should
consider these tiers when determining which words to focus on during
instruction.
Tier one words are common words used in everyday speech. They are
typically learned by the early grades through normal conversation.
Explicit instruction on the meanings of these words is seldom needed.
Tier two words are found in both fiction and nonfiction texts and are
common enough that readers will likely encounter them in multiple
texts. Tier two words carry a lot of meaning and can negatively affect
comprehension if they are not understood by readers. When deciding
which tier two words to focus on, teachers should consider how the
words affect the overall meanings of the texts and their morphologies.
They should consider if students will be able to form connections
between these words and other words, helping them understand
unfamiliar words encountered in the future.
Tier three words are mostly found in nonfiction texts and are domain-specific. These words are important for understanding the texts and
their domains. Because students are unlikely to have encountered these words before, explicit instruction is needed. This often includes pre-teaching the words and analyzing them in context.
Define idioms, and explain some instructional strategies that can be used to help students understand their uses and meanings.
Idioms are a type of figurative language. They are expressions that have
unique meanings that differ from the literal meanings of their
component words. They are typically passed down within cultures. For
example, “It’s raining cats and dogs” is an idiom that means it is raining
hard.
Idioms can be introduced to students a few at a time, with students
contrasting the literal and figurative meanings. They can practice using
context clues to determine the meanings of unknown idioms, and they
can look for examples of idioms in texts. They can also explore the ways
that idioms make writing interesting. For example, they can write a
paragraph using the idiom, “It’s raining cats and dogs.” They can then
rewrite the paragraph, substituting the words, “It’s raining hard.” They
can compare the effects of each option on readers.
Special consideration should be given when using idioms with ELLs in
the early stages of English language acquisition. Because vocabulary
knowledge cannot be used to assist with comprehension of idioms,
students may miss the meanings and become frustrated.
Explain what proverbs are and why they are important to teach. Describe some instructional strategies to help students recognize proverbs and understand their meanings.
Proverbs are short, well-known sayings that offer wisdom or advice.
They are commonly passed down within cultures using oral language.
An example of a proverb is: “Actions speak louder than words.” Proverbs
often use figurative language, and their literal meanings do not make
sense. Therefore, students need to be taught to recognize proverbs and
understand their figurative meanings to comprehend the overall
messages of the texts containing them.
When introducing proverbs, teachers can help students understand the
cultural and historical significance behind them. For example, the
proverb “Don’t look a gift horse in the mouth” refers to the historical
practice of assessing a horse’s teeth to determine its age. The proverb
refers to being grateful for what you are given rather than assessing the
worth of a gift. Teachers can help students research these proverbs to
provide historical contexts for their meanings.
Students can write proverbs on graphic organizers and list both their
literal and figurative meanings. They can analyze what the proverbs
have in common, such as offering wisdom or advice about life.
Additionally, when they are encountered in texts, readers can analyze
how the meanings of the proverbs contribute to the meanings of the
stories.
Describe some instructional strategies to help students recognize and use abbreviations and acronyms appropriately.
Because there are numerous abbreviations and acronyms, teachers need to selectively choose which ones to focus on for instructional purposes. Therefore, teachers often address abbreviations and acronyms as they come up in students’ reading and writing. For example, when writing letters, teachers can explain the abbreviations Dr., Mr., and Mrs. Teachers can also observe issues with abbreviations and acronyms as they occur in students’ writing and address them through mini-lessons. Examples of abbreviations and acronyms can be pointed out in texts. Charts displaying common abbreviations and their long—form versions can also be displayed in classrooms to provide scaffolding before they are memorized.
In the age of digital communication and social media, it is also important to teach students when it is appropriate to use abbreviations and acronyms. Students need to consider their purpose for communication and their relationship with their audience. For example, informal acronyms may be appropriate for texts between friends but not for use in business letters.
Describe the characteristics of shared writing experiences, and explain the benefits of shared writing.
During shared writing experiences, teachers and students
collaboratively plan the content of shared writing pieces. Teachers assist their students with choosing topics, deciding which details to include, selecting words, and organizing text structure. Students are asked to share their ideas, and teachers help students organize their thoughts and put them into writing. Teachers control the writing instruments and put the words down on paper. Along the way, they may ask students for assistance with spelling words, determining how to punctuate, and other issues. Teachers model their thinking and use of writing strategies throughout the process. Once the drafting is finished, students may assist with revising, editing, and reading the texts aloud.
Shared writing experiences give students opportunities to be active
participants in scaffolded versions of the writing process and work
collaboratively to develop quality writing pieces. Additionally, they
benefit from observing their teachers as they model the use of writing
strategies.
Describe the characteristics of interactive writing experiences, and explain the benefits of interactive writing.
During interactive writing experiences, teachers and students work
together to create shared writing pieces. With teacher guidance,
students help plan writing topics, determine which details to include,
and organize text structure. Students share the writing utensils with
teachers and contribute to recording the words on paper. Teachers
provide guidance along the way. For example, they may remind students of recently learned spelling patterns while students are spelling the words on paper. Classes may also work together to revise, edit, and read the writing pieces.
Giving students control over the writing utensils is what differentiates
interactive writing from shared writing. In shared writing, teachers
record the words on paper.
Interactive writing allows students to be active participants in the
writing process while receiving scaffolding from teachers. It also allows
students to collaboratively create quality writing pieces they are unable
to produce independently at their current stages of writing
development. Additionally, teachers can build targeted mini-lessons into the interactive writing process.
Describe phonetic spelling, and explain the role it plays in literacy and writing development.
Phonetic spelling is common in the early stages of writing development.
When writing words, students consider what sounds they hear. They use knowledge of phonics rules to select letters or groups of letters to represent those sounds. For example, a student who is familiar with CVC words might write love as luv.
Parents are sometimes concerned with the amount of misspelled words in their children’s writing. However, phonetic spelling plays a role in reading and writing development and is a stepping stone to conventional spelling.
At this stage, students know how to automatically spell a limited number of words. Using known phonics rules helps them efficiently encode words they do not know how to spell. If students are worried about spelling every word conventionally, they must continuously ask others for help. This slows the writing process and puts more emphasis on spelling than on recording ideas. Therefore, teachers typically tell students in this stage to write the sounds they hear and move on. This process also allows students to apply the phonics skills they use while reading.
Over time, students learn more complex spelling patterns and automatically remember how to spell more words. At this point, spelling becomes more conventional.
Explain how word walls can be used to support reading and writing development.
Word walls are collections of words that are prominently displayed in
classrooms. Words selected for display on word walls should be
meaningful for students. They might include high-frequency words that
students need to read and write often or academic vocabulam-y words
related to units of study. Word walls are flexible, and words may be
added or removed throughout the year based on students’ needs.
Teachers should model how to use word walls to locate and spell high-frequency words. Words may be attached using Velcro, magnets, or
other methods that allow them to be removed. This allows students to
take the words down while using them and return them to the wall
when finished.
There are many ways to organize word walls. Words can be listed
alphabetically under letter headings, helping young writers quickly
locate them for spelling assistance. If focused on academic vocabulary,
the words can be grouped by topic. Visuals can be included with
vocabulary words to assist students with remembering meanings.
Describe some different approaches to teaching students to spell.
There are many methods and commercial programs available to teach
spelling. Although they vary in approach, the methods that are most
effective share some common characteristics.
Effective spelling instruction should be explicit. Although students
naturally learn to spell many words through frequent reading
experiences, some explicit spelling instruction is still helpful to teach
common spelling patterns and relationships among words. The
instruction should be both incremental and sequential.
Teachers can introduce weekly spelling patterns, and students can
complete activities to familiarize themselves with the patterns.
Depending on the ages of the students, this may include word sorts,
word hunts, and tracing. Multisensory activities are also helpful, such as
building words with letter tiles and writing words in sand. Teachers may
assess students’ applications of the spelling patterns at the end of each
week. Some teachers give students lists of words to study ahead of time. Other teachers assess students by asking them to spell new words that follow the patterns they have been studying.
Describe the stages of spelling development.
Students typically progress through a series of stages of spelling
development. Researchers name the stages differently, but they contain
common characteristics.
In the pre-phonetic stage, students spell using random letter and
number strings. There are no letter-sound relationships evident in
words. In the semi-phonetic stage, some letter-sound relationships are
used to spell words. Students typically learn to correctly spell the
beginning and ending sounds in words first, followed later by the medial sounds. In the phonetic stage, some simple words begin to be spelled correctly, such as CVC words. In addition to initial, medial, and final sounds, some more complex sounds are accurately represented. This includes some consonant blends and digraphs. In the transitional, or word extension stage, students learn to use syllable patterns to spell
more complex words. Most words are spelled correctly in this stage. In
the derivational constancy stage, students use knowledge of roots and
affixes to spell related words. Most om- all words in students’ writing
pieces are spelled correctly in this stage.
Define orthography, and describe some instructional strategies to help students explore the three layers of orthography.
Orthography refers to the conventional spelling of words in a language.
Because many words are spelled using the same patterns, studying
orthography helps students increase the number of words they can spell correctly. Learning to apply orthographic patterns is an important part of any literacy program.
Word studies, or word work, should be regularly included in the school
day. Word work should be sequential and built upon the knowledge of
orthographic patterns that students already possess.
There are three layers of orthography that students can explore during
word work. The alphabet layer refers to letter-sound relationships.
Activities in which students combine letters or letter groups to form
words will help them explore the alphabet layer. When students explore
the pattern layer, they look for larger patterns that guide the spellings
of words. Activities in which students build words within word families,
such as CVCe words, help them explore the pattern layer. The meaning
layer explores the relationships between word meanings and spellings.
Sorting and writing words that contain the same Latin roots will help
students explore the meaning layer of orthography.
Explain the role that memorization plays in spelling development and instruction.
There are some words that students cannot learn to spell by learning
spelling patterns. These include many high-frequency words with
irregular spelling patterns, such as the word the. Students should have
frequent and repeated exposure to these words to memorize their
spellings. Practice activities are helpful, such as building these words
with letter tiles.
Some academic vocabulary words are also difficult for students to spell
using knowledge of spelling patterns. For example, second graders may
learn about camouflage as part of a science unit on animal adaptations.
However, it would be difficult for students of this age to spell the word
camouflage using knowledge of spelling patterns. Frequent exposure to
these academic words in print will help students learn to spell them over time. Adding these words to word walls or classroom charts can serve as tools to assist with spelling initially. Being given numerous
opportunities to write these words with scaffolding will assist with
memorization.
Although memorization plays a role in spelling some words, its use as an instructional strategy should be balanced with explicit instruction in
spelling patterns. When choosing weekly spelling lists, teachers should
focus on patterns that can be applied to multiple words.
Describe some principles of effective writing.
Clarity and brevity are two related principles of effective writing. They
require writers to include sufficient detail to convey their intended
meanings while simultaneously omitting any extraneous or repetitive
information. Students should be encouraged to consider the value that
each word and sentence adds to their writing to determine whether or
not it should be included. They should also consider the background
knowledge of their intended audiences to ensure they go into the
appropriate amount of detail to meet their needs.
Author’s craft and voice are also important principles of effective
writing that draw readers in and compel them to read more. In fictional
texts, they help readers identify with characters and make the stories
seem realistic. These principles help maintain reader engagement with
the texts.
Additionally, careful editing is important for effective writing. If
numerous errors are present, the meanings of the texts maybe affected.
Describe some instructional strategies to help students edit their writing to correct errors with mechanics.
Frequent modeling is helpful when teaching students to edit. Teachers
can model using editing checklists or rubrics to check for errors in their
own work. The class can edit writing pieces they have composed
together during shared writing experiences or edit texts containing
errors written by other authors.
Teachers can also instruct students to follow routines when editing. This
may include completing editing checklists or recalling mnemonic
devices to ensure that all areas have been checked. CUPS is one
mnemonic device that can be used to remind young writers to check for
capitalization, usage, punctuation, and spelling. Because it can be
difficult for students to recognize errors in their own writing, teachers
can also encourage students to edit their own work first and then ask
other students to edit it as well.
Additionally, students benefit from frequent, shared reading experiences using large print books, projected digital texts, or other means that allow them to follow along as teachers read. Teachers can stop to point out how authors use capital letters, punctuation marks, and other conventions. Frequently seeing these conventions in use will help students understand their purposes and notice when they are used incorrectly in other texts.
Describe some instructional strategies to help students use correct punctuation in their writing.
Teachers can explicitly teach students about each punctuation mark by
introducing it, discussing its purpose, and demonstrating how to use it
correctly in writing.
Students should also have frequent opportunities to explore how
punctuation is used in context. They can be asked to find examples of
certain punctuation marks in texts and examine the roles they play in
the sentences. They can try reading the sentences with the given
punctuation marks. They can then reread them with the punctuation
marks omitted or substituted and discuss the differences in meaning and tone. For example, students could read a sentence in a book ending with a period, using appropriate intonation and pausing. They could then substitute the period for an exclamation point, adjusting their intonation. They could discuss how the meaning and tone of the
sentence changed. Students can also edit their own writing by reading it
aloud, using the intonation and phrasing suggested by the punctuation
marks they included. They can ask themselves if any areas sound
unclear, such as if sentences seem to blend together. They can also use
punctuation checklists and ask other classmates to edit their work to
double-check for errors.
Describe some instructional strategies to help students use correct capitalization in their writing.
One strategy to teach proper capitalization is to give students texts and
ask them to circle all capital letters. Students can then be asked to
identify what the words with capital letters have in common, leading to a discussion of capitalization rules. These rules can also be explicitly
taught with examples provided.
Posters can be displayed in classrooms as reminders of when to
capitalize letters, such as at the beginnings of sentences, when using
proper nouns, or when writing the word I.
Additionally, students can be asked to edit texts, including their own
writing pieces, to locate capitalization errors. Students should be
reminded that errors may include both randomly capitalized letters and
lowercase letters that should be capitalized.
The ability to differentiate between common and proper nouns is
needed to apply capitalization rules correctly. To assist with this skill,
students can complete word sorts with common and proper nouns. They can also locate and circle examples of each type in texts.
Define rubric, and explain the benefits of using rubrics to assess literacy development.
Rubrics are evaluation tools used to assign scores to students’ work.
They explain the criteria used to assign scores for different levels of
mastery. Rubrics can be given to students when projects are assigned to ensure they understand expectations. They can make evaluation more consistent because all students are evaluated using the same criteria. Rubrics can also be easily adapted to reflect different types of activities and assignments.
There are many ways rubrics can be used to evaluate literacy
development. They can be used to assess students’ reading fluency, with categories relating to speed, accuracy, and prosody. They can also be used to evaluate projects relating to analysis and comprehension.
Additionally, rubrics can be used to assess students’ writing. Categories
relating to development, use of language, conventions, and other topics
can be included. The rubrics can be adapted to reflect the genres or text
structures used.
Differentiate between analytic and holistic rubrics, and explain the advantages and disadvantages of each.
Analytic rubrics assign separate scores for each criterion being
evaluated. For example, if a writing rubric has criteria for development,
use of language, and conventions, each of these areas receives its own
score. These scores are then added together to determine the overall
score for the assignment. Analytic rubrics provide targeted feedback and help students understand their strengths and weaknesses. However, they can be time-consuming to create and adapt.
Holistic rubrics provide one overall score for the assignment rather
than evaluating each criterion separately. They list varying levels of
performance, and each level describes the characteristics of assignments earning that score. For example, a writing assignment might be assigned a score ranging from 1 to 4. Assignments earning a score of 4 would be well developed, have effective use of language, and have few or no errors with conventions. Holistic rubrics can be faster for teachers to create and adapt for different assignments. However, the feedback is less targeted than it is when using analytic rubrics, which evaluate each criterion separately.
Describe some purposes of literacy assessment.
Literacy assessments can serve many purposes. Assessments can be
used to monitor the progress of students toward achieving district and
state benchmarks as well as individualized goals. They can identify
specific skills that students have mastered as well as those that need
additional practice. They can also identify if students are making
adequate yearly progress.
Additionally, assessments can be used to guide teacher instruction. By
analyzing assessment results, teachers can determine which topics they
should focus on for whole-class, small-group, and individualized
instruction. This helps ensure that too much instructional time is not
spent on topics students have already mastered while ignoring topics
that need additional practice.
Assessments can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of reading
programs. By analyzing students’ assessment data over time, districts
can look for trends in student achievement and progress toward closing
achievement gaps.
Differentiate between screening and diagnostic assessments, and explain the purposes of each.
Screening assessments are used to identify students who may be at
risk for future academic difficulties. Information gained from these
assessments can be used to determine which students would likely
benefit from specialized interventions to help prevent academic
difficulties in the future.
Adequate literacy screening is important in young children. Studies have shown that literacy difficulties are harder to remedy through
intervention after third grade. By identifying these students early and
providing appropriate interventions, these difficulties can be prevented
or lessened. For example, phonemic awareness screenings are
frequently given to early childhood students because phonemic
awareness is a key indicator of future reading success.
Diagnostic assessments are used to identify students’ existing
knowledge and skills before beginning instruction. For example,
students may complete diagnostic assessments focused on using
comprehension strategies to understand nonfiction texts. Data from
diagnostic assessments can be used to help teachers plan differentiated instruction to meet students’ individual needs.
Differentiate between formal and informal assessments, and describe some advantages and disadvantages of each.
Formal assessments are administered and scored in a standardized
fashion. Therefore, scoring is objective. Formal assessments can provide information about students’ performances in relationship to other students and data regarding how well they have learned specific skills. Formal assessments include both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests. Examples include commercial standardized tests, state-mandated standardized tests, district assessments, and quizzes.
Informal assessments are not administered or scored in a standardized
fashion. Scoring is subjective. Examples include student interviews,
classroom observations, anecdotal records, and checklists.
Although formal assessments can provide useful data about student
performance and progress, they can be costly and time-consuming to
implement. Administering formal assessments often interrupts
classroom instruction, and it may cause testing anxiety. Informal
assessments do not provide objective data for analysis, but they can be
implemented quickly and inexpensively. Informal assessments can also
be incorporated into regular classroom instruction and activities,
making them more authentic and less stressful for students.
Differentiate between formative and summative assessment, and describe some uses for each.
Formative assessments are conducted throughout the learning process.
Formative assessments are diagnostic in nature and are used to
identify both existing knowledge and gaps. Information learned from
formative assessments can be used to plan and guide instruction.
Formative assessments can be formal or informal and may include
observations, homework assignments, class discussions, and weekly
quizzes. They may include a combination of teacher assessments and
student self-assessments.
Summative assessments are used to evaluate students’ learning after
units of instruction have concluded. Summative assessments are usually considered to be higher stakes than formative assessments and typically include formal grades or scores. Examples of summative assessments include unit tests and yearly standardized tests. Summative assessments can assist teachers with determining if instruction has been successful or if changes need to be made to their instructional methods.
Both formative and summative assessments provide value to teachers
and play a role in the classroom. The results of each can be used to
improve instruction.
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of group and individual literacy assessments.
Group literacy assessments are administered to groups of students at
one time. Teachers explain the directions and then instruct all students
to begin working, while they observe and answer questions.
Assessments are scored after students finish and submit them. Examples of group literacy assessments include state-mandated standardized reading and writing tests. Using the group approach to literacy assessments is more efficient than individualized assessment, freeing up more time for classroom instruction. It also assists teachers with classroom management because all students are being assessed at once.
Individualized assessments are given to one student at a time. Teachers
may listen to students read, observe strategy usage, or ask students to
retell stories they have read. Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy
Skills (DIBELS) and Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA) are
examples of individual assessments. This approach allows teachers to
closely observe the strategies each student uses. However, it is more
time intensive, and the remaining students in the class must be engaged
in other activities.
Describe some advantages and disadvantages of using technology-based assessments.
Technology-based assessments can have many advantages. They can be given to large numbers of students at once, limited only by the amounts of technological equipment schools possess. Many types of technology-based assessments are instantly scored, and feedback is quickly provided. Students are sometimes able to view their results and
feedback at the conclusion of their testing sessions. Data can be quickly
compiled and reported in easy-to-understand formats.
Technology-based assessments can also often track student progress over time. Technology-based assessments can have some disadvantages as well. Glitches and system errors can interfere with the assessment process or score reporting. Students must also have the necessary prerequisite technological skills to take the asses3ments, or the results may not measure the content they are designed to measure. For example, if students take timed computer-based writing tests, they should have proficient typing skills. Otherwise, they may perform poorly on the tests despite strong writing abilities. Other prerequisite skills include knowing how to use a keyboard and mouse and understanding how to locate necessary information on the screen.
Describe some characteristics of norm-referenced tests, and explain some advantages and disadvantages of their use.
On norm-referenced tests, students’ performances are compared to
the performances of sample groups of similar students. Norm-referenced tests identify students who score above and below the
average. To ensure reliability, the tests must be given in a standardized
manner to all students.
Norm-referenced tests usually cover a broad range of skills, such as the
entire grade-level curriculum for a subject. They typically contain a few
questions per skill. Whereas scores in component areas of the tests may be calculated, usually overall test scores are reported. Scores are often reported using percentile ranks, which indicate what percentage of test takers scored lower than the student being assessed. For example, a student’s score in the 75th percentile means the student scored better than 75% of other test takers. Other times, scores may be reported using grade-level equivalency.
One advantage of norm-referenced tests is their objectivity. They also
allow educators to compare large groups of students at once. This may
be helpful for making decisions regarding class placements and
groupings. A disadvantage of norm-referenced tests is that they only
indicate how well students perform in comparison to one another. They
do not indicate whether or not students have mastered certain skills.
Describe some characteristics of criterion-referenced tests, and explain some advantages and disadvantages of their use.
Criterion-referenced tests measure how well students perform on
certain skills or standards. The goal of these tests is to indicate whether
or not students have mastered certain skills and which skills require
additional instruction. Scores are typically reported using the
percentage of questions answered correctly or students’ performance
levels. Performance levels are outlined using terms such as below
expectations, met expectations, and exceeded expectations.
One advantage of criterion-referenced tests is they provide teachers
with useful information to guide instruction. They can identify which
specific skills students have mastered and which skills need additional
practice. Teachers can use this information to plan whole-class, small-group, and individualized instruction. Analyzing results of criterion-referenced tests over time can also help teachers track student progress on certain skills. A disadvantage of criterion-referenced tests is they do not allow educators to compare students’ performances to samples of their peers.
Explain some common ways that standardized test results are reported.
Raw scores are sometimes reported and indicate how many questions
students answered correctly on a test. By themselves, they do not provide much useful information. They do not indicate how students performed in comparison to other students or to grade-level expectations.
Grade-level equivalents are also sometimes reported. A grade-level
equivalent score of 3.4 indicates that a student performed as well as an
average third grader in the fourth month of school. It can indicate whether a student is performing above or below grade-level expectations, but it does not indicate that the student should be moved to a different grade level.
Standard scores are used to compare students’ performances on tests to standardized samples of their peers. Standard deviation refers to the amount that a set of scores differs from the mean score on a test.
Percentile ranks are used on criterion-referenced tests to indicate what
percentage of test takers scored lower than the student whose score is being reported.
Cutoff scores refer to predetermined scores students must obtain in order to be considered proficient in certain areas. Scores below the cutoff level indicate improvement is needed and may result in interventions or instructional changes.
Describe how progress monitoring can be used to assess students and guide instruction.
Progress monitoring is used to track students’ progress toward
achieving certain performance goals over time. Teachers first identify
students who may benefit from progress monitoring. This usually occurs as a result of assessment data. Students who score below expectations on certain components of criterion-referenced tests may be progressively monitored in those areas.
Teachers then set performance goals that can be measured and tracked
over time. For example, if students are currently decoding five CVC
words correctly in one minute, the goal may be for them to decode 15
words per minute. Interventions are put in place to help students with
these skills. Teachers then repeat testing in these targeted areas on a
regular basis, such as weekly or biweekly. Results are recorded, and
teachers look for progress over time. Once students have mastered the
initial goals, new goals are set, or progress monitoring is discontinued,
depending on students’ needs.
Progress monitoring can help teachers identify whether or not current
interventions are successful or whether changes are needed. It can also
help teachers identify when students have mastered certain skills.
Differentiate among validity, reliability, and bias in testing.
Testing validity refers to how well tests measure what they claim to
measure. For example, a test designed to measure students’ knowledge
of concepts of print should include a range of questions requiring
students to recognize and apply these concepts. Unrelated questions
should not be included.
Testing reliability refers to the consistency of the test results over time
and among participants. If a student takes the same test on two different days, the results should be about the same. Additionally, two different students who perform the same on a test should receive the same scores. If tests are unreliable, no conclusions can be drawn from the results.
Testing bias occurs when the test design disadvantages certain groups
of participants. For example, cultural bias occurs when test questions
include cultural references that some students may not understand. This bias may cause these students to answer the questions incorrectly even if they possess the knowledge and skills the questions are supposed to assess.
Describe some types of formal assessments used to assess oral language and reading skills. Explain the purposes of each.
There are several types of formal assessments designed to assess readers. Some assessments assess knowledge of concepts of print. These are typically performance assessments. Students are asked to locate titles and authors’ names, identify letters and words, track the direction of print, and more. Teachers observe students and mark their responses on recording sheets containing scoring criteria. Other formal assessments ask students to identify letter names, apply phonological and phonemic awareness skills, and decode words. Portions of the DIBELS assessment are examples of this type. Data gained from these assessments can be used to group students, plan differentiated instruction, and develop interventions.
Other formal assessments evaluate students’ decoding abilities and reading fluency. Students may be asked to read short texts while being timed. They may also be asked to retell stories or answer comprehension questions. Both DIBELS and DRA are two examples of this type of assessment. State standardized tests often require students to read passages and answer comprehension questions. In addition to helping teachers group students and differentiate instruction, these assessments can also help teachers select appropriately leveled texts. There are also formal assessments that specifically assess students’ vocabulary knowledge.
Describe how written language can be formally assessed. Explain the purposes of these assessments.
Students’ writing is often formally assessed using teacher-created,
district-mandated, and state-mandated assessments. These assessments typically provide students with specific writing prompts indicating the topics and text structures they are expected to use. Sometimes prompts are based on reading passages that are also contained in the assessments. For example, students may be asked to read two related texts and write responses that explain the common theme they share.
Students’ written responses on formal assessments are usually scored
using either analytic or holistic rubrics. These rubrics should contain
clear criteria that reflect the performance expectations for students.
Common criteria include development, organization, language use,
conventions, and following the writing process. By analyzing students’
performances on different rubric criteria, teachers can plan
individualized instruction and develop interventions for struggling
students. For example, if students are struggling with language use,
teachers can help students analyze mentor texts that contain strong
examples.
Describe some types of informal assessments used to assess literacy development. Explain the purposes of each.
One type of informal assessment is miscue analysis, which occurs when
teachers listen to students as they read and analyze their miscues. By
looking for patterns in the miscues, teachers can determine which
strategies students are using and which are lacking. This information
can be used to guide instruction.
Informal reading inventories require students to read leveled texts
while teachers note errors and fluency. Students then respond to
comprehension questions about the texts. Information gained from
informal reading inventories can be used to select leveled texts, group
students, and plan appropriate instruction.
Portfolios are another type of informal assessment. Portfolios consist of
collections of student work, which can be used to show progress over
time.
Performance assessments can also be used to assess students’ literacy
development while allowing students to complete authentic tasks. For
example, students may research nutritional guidelines and read food
labels to create healthy weekly meal plans. Informal assessment can also occur when teachers observe students engaged in literacy activities, ask them to explain their thinking, and note performance on assignments and homework. These methods can provide valuable information about students’ knowledge and skills,
which can be used to guide instruction.
Describe running records, and explain their usefulness in assessing reading development.
Running records are tools used to record students’ behaviors and use
of strategies during reading. To administer running records, teachers
provide students with books in their developmental reading levels and
ask them to read the books aloud. While students are reading, teachers
record the words read correctly with check marks. They also note errors
by recording the actual words in the texts and the words students
substituted for them. Word repetitions, omissions, and self-corrections
are also noted using special symbols.
By analyzing errors, teachers can determine which cueing systems
students are consistently using. They can plan mini-lessons to encourage students to use the cueing systems they are not currently using. Teachers can also note fluency and how students track the texts.
Analyzing self-corrections can indicate whether or not students are self-monitoring their reading. Additionally, accuracy rates can be calculated.
To calculate accuracy rates, teachers first divide the number of words
read correctly by the total number of words in the texts and then
multiply the answers by 100. Accuracy rates can be used to determine if
the texts are in students’ frustration, instructional, or independent
reading levels. This assists teachers with selecting appropriate texts and
differentiating instruction to meet students’ needs.
Describe the role that performance-based assessments can play in literacy assessment. Also explain their advantages and disadvantages.
Performance-based assessments require students to solve real-world
problems and accomplish authentic tasks by applying literacy skills and
strategies. An example of a performance-based assessment is writing a
letter to a government official in support of a new law, citing evidence-based reasons for the position. Depending on the types of tasks involved, performance-based assessments may require students to synthesize information from multiple sources, defend positions with text evidence, write texts following the writing process, and create materials to convey information to others.
Performance-based assessments are open ended and do not contain
right oi- wrong answers. Typically, there are multiple ways that students
can approach the tasks. The assessments are evaluated using rubrics,
with clear criteria determined and shared with students in advance.
An advantage of performance-based assessments is that they allow
students opportunities to solve real-world problems, thereby increasing
learner engagement. They also require higher-level thinking skills, such
as analysis, application, synthesis, amid creation. Additionally, they often allow students some choices in how they present their learning. A
disadvantage is that performance-based assessments may be time
consuming to create and implement. Grading can also be subjective.
Describe the role that portfolios can play in literacy assessment and the advantages and disadvantages of their use.
Portfolios are collections of students’ projects and work gathered over
time. They can serve many purposes in assessing literacy development.
They can be used to track students’ progress over time and check for
mastery of certain skills, which is useful for planning differentiated
instruction. Portfolios can also be passed along to students’ future
teachers, helping them determine students’ instructional levels.
Additionally, portfolios can be used to help students self-evaluate their
own progress and set future goals.
If using portfolios, teachers must make several decisions. They must
determine how the portfolios will be used, which will influence the
criteria used to select portfolio entries. They also need to determine how entries will be selected. Will teachers or students select the entries, or will both play roles in the process? Teachers also need to decide if the portfolios will be graded. Checklists and rubrics are possible tools that can be used to grade portfolios.
Some advantages of portfolios include the ability to see concrete
evidence of student progress over time and the possibility of having
students actively involved in assessing their own progress. However,
evaluating portfolios is subjective, and teachers may be unsure of how to use them to guide instruction.
Explain the criteria teachers should use to determine when to respond to student miscues in reading.
Even proficient readers make errors at times. Fluent readers often read
texts rapidly and may occasionally omit or substitute words without
changing the meanings of the texts. For example, they may substitute
“her house” for “the house” in a text. These types of errors do not impact meaning and, if occasional, can be ignored. Stopping to correct these types of minor errors can interrupt fluency and comprehension.
Readers in the emergent and early stages of development may make
frequent errors and become frustrated if corrected each time.
Overcorrection may interfere with confidence and reading enjoyment.
Teachers should strategically choose which types of errors to respond to during each reading session. One approach is to focus on a single type of error each time, such as errors where syntax cues are ignored. Another approach is to intervene only when errors affect the meaning of the text. Minor errors can be ignored to build fluency and confidence.
Explain the criteria for determining if texts are at students’ frustration levels. Then describe how texts at the frustration level can be appropriately used in instruction.
When determining reading levels, teachers typically consider both
accuracy rate and comprehension. Different reading programs vary
slightly in their cutoff levels, but texts are generally considered to be at
the frustration level if they are read with less than 90% accuracy.
Additionally, responding correctly to less than 70% of comprehension
questions may indicate that texts are at students’ frustration levels.
These books are considered difficult for students to read.
Texts at the frustration level can be used in beneficial ways. Students
may enjoy exploring difficult texts on topics of interest, which may help
them develop a love of reading. Because these texts can provide valuable information that students cannot access independently, teachers can also read these texts aloud or provide digital versions with audio. Teachers can model using reading strategies with these difficult texts during shared reading experiences. Additionally, students can be
encouraged to read these texts with family members.
Explain the criteria for determining if texts are at students’ instructional reading levels. Then describe how texts at the instructional level can be appropriately used in instruction.
When determining reading levels, teachers typically consider both
accuracy rate and comprehension. Different reading programs vary
slightly in their cutoff levels, but texts are generally considered to be at
the instructional level if they are read with 90% to 94% accuracy.
Additionally, responding correctly to 70% to 89% of comprehension
questions may indicate that texts are at students’ instructional levels.
These books present some challenges for readers, but they can still be
read without frustration.
Texts at the instructional level are appropriate for use in guided reading
groups. Students are able to decode most words, yet a few miscues may occur that can be used as teaching points. Teachers may analyze student errors and use this information to plan mini-lessons. Additionally, students are able to apply comprehension strategies to analyze and discuss these texts. Texts at the instructional level allow students to have successful and positive experiences with reading while still learning from their challenges.
Explain the criteria for determining if texts are at students’ independent reading levels. Then describe how texts at the independent level can be appropriately used in instruction.
When determining reading levels, teachers typically consider both
accuracy rate and comprehension. Different reading programs vary
slightly in their cutoff levels, but texts are generally considered to be at
the independent level if they are read with 95% to 100% accuracy.
Additionally, responding correctly to 90% to 100% of comprehension
questions may indicate that texts are at students’ independent levels.
Texts at the independent reading level can be read by students with no
assistance.
Texts that students can read independently are good candidates for free choice reading time. They also can be used when practicing
comprehension strategies, such as inferring and drawing conclusions.
Because students do not struggle to decode words in these texts, they
have the mental energy available to do more complex analysis. Students can also repeatedly read favorite books at their independent reading levels for fluency practice, and they can read these books to partners or family members.
Describe some factors teachers should consider when selecting appropriate texts to support the backgrounds and interests of diverse learners.
When selecting appropriate texts to support diverse learners, teachers
should take several factors into consideration. First, they should
consider students’ reading levels and stages of reading development to
determine how much text support is needed. For emergent and early
readers, teachers should consider how much picture support is present,
how many words are printed on each page, and the predictability of the
text. They should also consider how easily students will be able to
decode the words based on spelling patterns, text clues, and use of high-frequency words.
For transitional and fluent readers, teachers should consider text
complexity. This includes the vocabulary, language use, and sentence
structure used in the texts. They should also consider how the texts
relate to students’ prior knowledge and interests and whether the
content supports learning objectives. If topics are unfamiliar to students, some scaffolding or pre-teaching may be needed.
Explain some techniques teachers can use to analyze and interpret assessment data.
Teachers can utilize multiple techniques to effectively analyze and
interpret assessment data. This typically involves creating charts and
graphs outlining different data subsets. They can list each learning
standard that was assessed, determine how many students overall
demonstrated proficiency on the standard, and identify individual
students who did not demonstrate proficiency on each standard. This
information can be used to differentiate instruction. Additionally, they
can track individual student performance and progress on each standard over time.
Teachers can take note of overall patterns and trends in assessment
data. For example, they can determine if any subgroups of students did
not meet expectations. They can consider whether the data confirms or
challenges any existing beliefs, implications this may have on
instructional planning and what, if any, conclusions can be drawn from
this data.
Analyzing and interpreting assessment data may raise new questions for educators, so they can also determine if additional data collection is
needed.
Explain how assessment data can be used to differentiate instruction for individual learners, including struggling readers, English language learners (ELLs), and on-level and proficient readers.
By analyzing and interpreting assessment data, teachers can determine
if there are any specific learning standards that need to be retaught to
their entire classes. This may be necessary if the data shows that all
students struggled in these specific areas. Teachers may consider
reteaching these standards using different methods if the initial methods were unsuccessful.
Teachers can also form groups of students who did not demonstrate
proficiency on the same learning standards. Targeted instruction can be
planned for these groups to help them make progress in these areas.
Interventions can also be planned for individual students who did not
show proficiency in certain areas, If interventions have already been in
place and have not led to increased learning outcomes, the interventions may be redesigned. If interventions have been in place and assessment data now shows proficiency, the interventions may be discontinued.
If assessment data shows that certain students have met or exceeded
expectations in certain areas, enrichment activities can be planned to
challenge these students and meet their learning needs.
