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a2 Biology > Component 2 > Flashcards

Component 2 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Acrosome reaction

A

Acrosome enzymes digest the corona radiata and the zona pellucida

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2
Q

Allele

A

A version of a gene at a given locus which codes for an altered phenotype

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3
Q

Allele frequency

A

Proportion of all the genes in the gene pool

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4
Q

Allopatrick speciation

A

Revolution of a new species from isolated populations by a geographical boundary

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5
Q

Capacitation

A

Removal of glycoproteins and cholesterol coat which increases permeability of the membrane to Ca+ and increases chances of bonding to allow acrosome reaction to occur

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6
Q

Carrier

A

Heterozygous for one dominant allele and one mutant recessive allele

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7
Q

Cortical reaction

A

Fusion of cortical membranes with oocyte membrane due to calcium ions being transported into the cytoplasm for SER. This causes zona pellucida to expand and harden

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8
Q

Dehiscence

A

Opening of the anther releasing pollen grains

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9
Q

DNA ligase

A

Enzyme that joins together portions of DNA by catalysing the formation of a phosphodiester bond

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10
Q

Dormant

A

Active growth of the seed is suspended

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11
Q

Electrophoresis

A

Separates molecules on the basis of size by rate of migration under an applied voltage

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12
Q

Epigenetics

A

The control of gene expression by modifying DNA or histories which does not effect the nucleotide sequence

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13
Q

Evolution

A

Change in allele frequency and the average phenotype of the population over time

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14
Q

Founder effect

A

The loss is genetic variation in a new population established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population

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15
Q

Fruit

A

Structure developing from ovary wall containing one or more seeds

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16
Q

Gene

A

Sequence of dna that codes of a polypeptide and occupies a specific locus on a chromosome

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17
Q

Gene pool

A

All alleles present of all the individuals in a population at a given time

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18
Q

Genetic drift

A

Change in allele frequency due to chance in a small population

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19
Q

Germination

A

When the seed becomes a photosynthesising plant

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20
Q

Hybrid

A

Off spring is a cross of different species

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21
Q

Linked

A

Genes are on the same chromosome and therefore do not segregate independently in meiosis

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22
Q

Non disjunction

A

Fault cell divisions no in meiosis where one of the daughter cells receives two copies of one chromosome and the other receives none

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23
Q

Plasmid

A

Small circular loop of DNA bacteria which is double stranded

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24
Q

Polyploidy

A

Having more than two complete sets of chromosomes

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25
Q

Primer

A

Single strands of DNA complementary to larger section of DNA that is going to be copied. Signals polymerisation to start

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26
Q

Recombinant DNA

A

DNA produced by combining DNA from two different species

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27
Q

Reproductive isolation

A

Prevents reproduction and gene flow between breeding groups in a species in an environment

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28
Q

Restriction endonucleases

A

Cuts sugar phosphate backbone at specific restriction sites

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29
Q

Reverse transcriptase

A

Catalysed the synthesis of DNA from an RNA template

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30
Q

Seed

A

Contains an embryo and food store within a testa

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31
Q

Sex linkage

A

Gene is located on X chromosome so is more likely in males than females

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32
Q

Speciation

A

Formation of a new species

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33
Q

Species

A

Group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring

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34
Q

Stem cell

A

Undifferentiated cell capable of diving to give rise to daughter cells which can develop into any type of cell

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35
Q

Sticky end

A

Sequence of unpaired bases which are staggered and exposed

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36
Q

Sympatric speciation

A

Evolution of a new species from populations sharing the same environment

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37
Q

Test cross

A

Cross with homozygous recessive

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38
Q

Transgenic

A

Organism genetically modified by the addition of genes from another species

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39
Q

Trophoblast

A

Cells forming outer layer of blastocyst

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40
Q

Variation

A

Difference between organisms of the same species

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41
Q

Mitosis

A

Cell devision forming two genetically identical daughter cells with same number of chromosomes

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42
Q

Classification

A

Organisation of organisms into groups according to shared similarities

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43
Q

3 domains

A

Eubacteria
Archea
Eukaryotes

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44
Q

Analogous

A

Same function but different structure = not related

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45
Q

Homologous structures

A

Same structure different functions = divergent evolution

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46
Q

Biodiversity

A

Number of species and number of organisms of each species in an environment

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47
Q

3 types of adaptations

A

Anatomical (body shape = streamlined)
Physiological (leaves fall of with low light intensity and cold)
Behavioural (flowers in spring with pollinating insects)

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48
Q

Interstitial cells

A

Secrete testosterone for secondary sex characteristics

49
Q

Sertoli cells

A

Nourish cells and protect from immune system

50
Q

Solid ball of cells

A

Morula

51
Q

First hormone secreted

A

GnRH

52
Q

Function of progesterone

A

Produced from corpus luteum

Maintains endometrium and inhibits FSH

53
Q

Function of oestrogen

A 
Builds endometrium 
Inhibits FSH 
Stimulates LH
Secondary sex characteristics
Inhibits prolactin and oxytocin
54
Q

Function of FSH

A

Stimulates Graafian follicle
Stimulates oestrogen
I’m

55
Q

2 synergid cells

A

Aid ferlisation

56
Q

3 antipodals

A

Direct nutrients

57
Q

Pollination

A

Transfer of pollen grains from another to nature stigma

58
Q

Self pollination

A

Pollen from anther is transferred to stigma of same flower or plant

59
Q

Cross pollination

A

Pollen transferred from anther to stigma on a flower of a different plant of same species

60
Q

Ensuring cross pollination

A 
Dichogamy 
Anther below stigma 
Male and female flowers 
Male and female plants 
Genetic incompatibility
61
Q

Why is maize a fruit

A

Testa fuses with ovary wall

62
Q

What is the testa formed from

A

Integuments and lignin

63
Q

Codominant

A

Both alleles have an affect on phenotype of heterozygous as both are expressed eg. Blood type AB

64
Q

Incomplete dominance

A

Phenotype of the heterozygous is half way between the two alleles

65
Q

Dihybrid cross

A

Cross between two individuals for two genes of different chromosomes
Assumes all allele combinations are equally likely and down to random assortment

66
Q

Recognising linkage

A

Cross over value

Kai squared

67
Q

Critical value

A

Degrees of freedom = number of sums -1

Use 0.05 probability value

68
Q

Mutations

A

Change in amount arrangement structure of DNA

69
Q

When do mutations occur

A

Crossing over in prophase 1

Non disjunction in anaphase 1/2

70
Q

Increased rate in mutations

A

Ionising radiation

Mutagenic agents eg. Agent orange

71
Q

Type of mutations

A

Genepoint
Chromosome
Aneuploidy
Polyploidy

72
Q

Gene point mutation

A

DNA not copied correction

73
Q

Chromosome mutation

A

Damaged or broken chromosome not repaired correctly

74
Q

Aneuploidy mutation

A

Chromosome is lost or added through non disjunction

75
Q

Polyploidy mutation

A

Double number of chromosomes due to

  • endomitosis
  • fusion of two haploid cells
  • defect in spindle fibres
76
Q

Types of gene mutation

A 
Substitution 
Addition
Deletion 
Inversion 
Duplication
77
Q

Sickle cell anaemia

A 
Substituting of val to glu
Change in tertiary
Insoluble 
Stick together
Sickle shaped 
Reduces oxygen binding
78
Q

Chromosome mutation

A

Change in structure and number of whole chromosomes

Eg. Breaks and doesn’t rejoin or non disjunction

79
Q

Down’s syndrome

A

Down’s syndrome
Extra chromosome 21 from nondisjunction of oocyte

Translocation downs when a bit breaks off and attaches to another chromosome

80
Q

Proteins that’s regulate cell division

A

Protooncogenes

Tumour suppressor genes

81
Q

Malignant cancer

A

Cells break off and travel in blood to form secondary tumour = metastasis

82
Q

2 ways of epigenetixs

A

Histone modification

DNA methylation

83
Q

4 types of variation

A

Heritable
Non inheritable
Continuous
Discontinuous

84
Q

Heritable variation

A

Mixing of parental genotypes
Crossing over
Random assortment
New allele combinations

85
Q

Non inheritable

A

Environmental influences determine phenotype
Eg. Diet exercise
Not passed on

86
Q

Continuous

A

Multiple genes polygenic
Graduation between extremes
Genetic and environmental

87
Q

Discontinuous

A

Single gene mono genic
Discreet variables
Genetic only
Not gradation

88
Q

Causes of variation

A

Mutation
Crossing over
Independent assortment
Random gamete formation
Environmental influence on cytoplasmic level (non inheritable)
Environmental influences on gene expression (epigenetics)

89
Q

4 types of selective agents

A

Environmental factors eg. Fire global warming
Human influence eg. Antibiotics weed killers
Inter specific competition
Intraspecifc competition g

90
Q

3 types of selection

A

Stabilising
Directional
Disruptive

91
Q

Selection pressure

A

Environment factor that can alter the frequency of alleles in a population when it is limiting

92
Q

Natural selection

A

Increased chance of survival and reproduction of organisms with phenotypes suited to their environment enhancing the transfer of favourable alleles between generations

93
Q

Selection

A

Process that better adapted organisms are more likely to survive and breeed and pass on characteristics

94
Q

Bottleneck

A

Disaster killed all by few individuals which changes alleles frequency

95
Q

How many new species arise

A

Polyploidy

Isolation = restriction of gene flow

96
Q

Reproductive isolation

A

Prevent of reproduction and gene flow between breeding groups in a species

97
Q

Prezygotic isolation

A 
Geographical 
Behavioural
Morphological
Gamete isolation
Seasonal
98
Q

Postzygotic

A

Hybrid inviability
Hybrid sterility
Hybrid breakdown

99
Q

Harvey Weinberg features

A 
Large population
No mutations 
Random mating 
No selective agents 
No immigration or emigration
100
Q

Harvest Weinberg equations

A 
P = frequency of dominant allele 
Q = frequency of recessive allele
P2 probability of homozygous dominant 
Q2 probability of homozygous recessive 
2pq probability of heterozygous
101
Q

Sanger sequencing

A 
Cut up DNA 
Add dideoxynueotide to present polymerisation 
Mark end nucleotide with marker 
Add stop nucleotides 
Gel electrophoresis
102
Q

Aims of human genome

A

determine order of bases in genome

Identify genes and mapping

103
Q

Chloroquine

A

Delays haemoglobin digestion by the parasite

104
Q

Getting the vector

A

EDTA to destabilise cell wall
Detergent
NaOH
Centrifuge

105
Q

Two gene markers

A

Amphicillin

Tertracycline

106
Q

Where is the gene for insulin

A

In tetracyline gene

107
Q

GM tomatoes

A

Add gene with complementary sequence to the gene that codes for pectin which break down the tomatoes

108
Q

Gene therapy

A

A working copy of the gene in placed into cells that contain a non functioning gene or repair gene by changing expression

109
Q

Somatic cell therapy

A

Replacing fault genes with correct copies in certain body tissues so genes can’t be inherited

110
Q

Germ line

A

Gene is inserted into embryo or gamete or all new cells contain new gene

111
Q

Duchenne muscular dystrophy cause

A

Deletion creates frame shift
Lack of dystrophin so muscles break down and are replaced by fibrous tissue and fatty deposits

Sex linked m

112
Q

Treatment for DMD

A

Drisapersen injections which restore reading frame by being complimentary to the mutated DNA part so section is not translated

113
Q

Autologous cells

A

Cells from same individual

114
Q

Allogenic cells

A

Donor of same species

115
Q

Xenogenic

A

Cells from another species

116
Q

Synergic cells

A

From genetically identical organism

117
Q

Benefits of a scaffold

A

Cells can attack
Delivers and retains cells
Porous for diffusion
Biodegradable

118
Q

Types of stem cells

A

Embryonic
Adult
Genericalll reprogrammed by viruses

119
Q

Uses of stem cells

A

Tissue engineering
Cell based therapies
Screen for new drugs

a2 Biology (2 decks)

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