Competition & Cooperation, Feedback & Flow Flashcards
What is competition?
A social process that occurs when rewards are given to people on the basis of how their performances compare with the performances of others doing the same task or participating in the same event.
What is Cooperation?
A social process through which performance is evaluated and rewarded in terms of the collective achievements of a group of people working together to reach a particular goal.
Deutsch, 1949
Noted that a few everyday situations are purely cooperative or competitive. He argued that social interactions involve some type of goal-directed behavior that rewards the person(s) for achieving the goal while requiring some type of cooperative effort.
What is the competitive process?
Competition is a process that encompasses four distinct events/stages: Objective competitive situation, subjective competitive situation, response, consequences.
The _____________ is at the focal point of the process and can influence the relationship among the various stages.
Person
Stage 1, the competition process; OBJECTIVE COMPETITIVE SITUATION
Includes a standard of comparison and at least one other person. The comparison standard can be an individual’s past performance or another individual’s performance. PRIMARY distinguishing factor: the criteria for comparison is known by at least one person who can evaluate the performance.
The Competition Process; STAGE 2
Situation must be evaluated in some way- Involves how the person perceives, accepts, and appraises the objective competitive situation. (Individual’s unique background and attributes become important i.e. perceived ability, importance of event, opponent)
STAGE 3, COMPETITIVE PROCESS; RESPONSE
After the person appraises a situation, they decide to approach or avoid. If the decision not to compete is made, the response stops there. (Behavioral, physiological, internal and external psychological)
STAGE 4, THE COMPETITION PROCESS, CONSEQUENCES
This stage results from the comparing the athlete’s response with the standard of comparison. These consequences can be seen as positive or negative, change based on athlete’s perception.
Is competition good or bad? Productive or destructive?
Competition is neither good nor bad; simply a process and the quality of leadership largely determines whether it will be good or bad. Competition is a LEARNED, social process, influenced by social environment. Neither Productive nor destructive.
Triplett’s Cyclists
Documented effects of competition on performance; cyclists were faster when racing against or with another cyclist, rather than racing alone or against a clock. For the first time, face-face competition was shown to potentially enhance performance.
Deutsch’s Puzzles
Overall, implications of study showed that teams work together when they have common goal and when reaching the goal produces similar rewards for all participants.
6 attributes that relate to competition and cooperation-
Sense of Mission Strong work ethic Use of resources Strong preparation Love of challenge and change Ability to work with a team
Competitive means–Competitive ends
The goal is to beat someone else or everyone else from the outset to the end. I.e. King of the Mountain
Cooperative means–Competitive ends
Participants cooperate in their group but compete outside the group.
I.e. soccer, basketball
Individual means– Individual ends
One or more players pursue an individual goal without cooperative or competitive interaction.
Cooperative means– Individual ends
Individuals cooperate and help each other achieve their own goals.
Cooperative means– cooperative ends
Players cooperate with each-other from the outset to the end. Everyone works towards a common goal, sharing the means and the ends.
Benefits of Cooperative Games
Versatile and adaptable. Anyone can play, rules of game can be altered to fit specific constraints of the situation, players learn to share, empathize, work to get along better. Players must help one another by working as a unit, leaving no one out of the action. Players can learn from mistakes rather than hid them.
Blend cooperative and competitive games; principles
Maximize participation
Maximize opportunities to learn sport and movement skills
Do not keep score
Give Positive feedback
Provide opportunities for players to play multiple positions.
Guidelines on the use of competition and cooperation in sport and games:
Individualize instruction to meet each person’s needs.
Structure games for children to include both cooperative and competitive elements.
When competition leads to fierce rivalry; use superordinate goals.
Provide positive feedback regardless of outcome
Stress cooperation to produce trust and open communication
Provide opportunities for both learning of the sport skills and the practice of these skills in competition.
What is reinforcement (definition)?
Reinforcement is the use of rewards and punishments that increase or decrease the likelihood of a similar response occurring in the future.
2 basic principles, or premises, of reinforcement:
- If doing something results in a good consequence (reward), people will tend to try and repeat the behavior, to achieve additional positive consequences.
- If doing something results in an unpleasant consequence (punshishment) people will tend to try NOT to repeat the behavior, to avoid more negative consequences.
Why are the principles of reinforcement complex?
…because people react differently to the same reinforcement, may not be able to repeat desired behavior, and receive different reinforcers in different situations.
Approaches to influencing behavior: Positive
Positive approach focuses on rewarding appropriate behavior, increases the likelihood of desirable responses occurring in the future. Designed to strengthen the desired behavior to motivate participants to person those behaviors and by rewarding when those behaviors occur.
Approaches to influencing behavior: Negative
The negative approach focuses on punishing undesirable behaviors, which should reduce the inappropriate behaviors. Negative approach focuses on errors, and attempts to eliminate unwanted behaviors through criticism and punishment.
Choosing effect reinforcers:
rewards should meet the needs of those receiving them; best to know the likes and dislikes of people you work with to choose reinforcers accordingly.
Intrinsic v extrinisic
extrinsic- come from external sources, teacher/ coach.
Intrinsic; come from/reside within participant
Schedule of reinforcements
Appropriate timing and frequency can ensure that rewards are affective. During the initial stages of training/skill development, desirable responses should be reinforced often, rewarding every correct response.
During later stages of reinforcement, intermittent reinforcement is more effective.
Schedules of reinforcement; fixed ratio
Reinforcement after a fixed, or set, number of responses.
Schedules of reinforcement; fixed Interval
A fixed amount of time, i.e. every thirty seconds, push bar, get one pellet. Can push on the bar however much you want, but eventually you learn that closer to thirty seconds, you push and get the pellet.
Schedules of reinforcement; variable ratio
Reinforcement after a variable number of responses;
Increases behavior the most
Schedules of reinforcement; variable interval
Reinforcement after a variable time.
Predominate approach
Most coaches/teachers use positive reinforcement. Negative can weigh on you. Approach from positive aspect = better results.
When should you reinforce:
Immediatly, regardless of reinforcement, or punishment. Tied to behavior. Continuous and immediate.
With learned skills, variable, when you hear it once in a while, keep doing it. Intermittent, for learned skills.
Child that hits others…
Approximate positive behavior- address behavior you want to see, rather than behavior you don’t want to see.
Reward for keeping hands in pocket, not hitting. Reward for keeping hands to self.
How to give feedback;
Positive, negative, Positive. Start with something they are doing right, constructively about something not right, something solution focused/action oriented, to help correct middle part.
OREO
What NOT to do
Physical abuse
criticism
criticism with sarcasm
employ guilt
Support of Punishment
Can deter future cheating or wrong-doing.
Can be used as a useful educational purpose-
(maintain stability, mastery, order)
Can punishment control and deter behavior?
Yes, but reinforcement should be used 80-90% of the time.
Drawbacks of punishment-
Can arouse fear of failure.
Can act as a reinforcer of unwanted behavior
producing shame
Can create unpleasant, aversive learning environment
thus hindering learning of skills
Guidelines for using punishment
Be consistent in punishment; same type for same rules broken
Punish behavior, not person.
Allow athletes inputs in making up punishment for rule breaking
DO NOT use physical activity as punishment
Make sure punishment does not mean attention/ reward
Impose punishment impersonally
Do not punish athletes for errors while playing
Do not embarrass individuals in front of others
Use it sparingly, enforce it when you do
Age appropriate
Make sure they understand the reason
Behavior modification
SHe skipped through during class….
Enjoying something and then someone pays you…
is this still enjoyable- not according to studies. Focused on reward/outcome rather than joy from playing game.
I.e. Deci found that being paid for working on an intrinsically interesting activity can decrease a person’s intrinsic motivation for the activity.
FLOW- intrinsic motivation
Essential Elements:
Balance of challenge and skills Complete absorption in the activity Clear goals Merging of action and awareness Total concentration on the task at hand Loss of self consciousness A sense of control No goals/ rewards external to the activity Transformation of time Effortless movement
FLOW, what is balanced
Occurs are equal to your challenge; intrinsic motivation is at it’s highest and maximum performance is achieved. If the task demands are greater than your capabilities, you become anxious and perform poorly. Conversely, if your skills are greater than the challenge, you become bored and perform less well.
Factors that influence flow, positive
Motivation to perform
Achieving optimal arousal
Maintaining appropriate focus
Pre-competitive and competitive plans and preparation.
OPtimal physical preparation and readiness
Optimal environmental and situational conditions
Confidence and mental attitude
Team play and mental attitude
Team play and interaction
Feeling good about performance
Factors that disrupt FLOW
Non-optimal environmental and situational influences
Problems with physical readiness or physical state
Problems with team performance or interactions
Inappropriate focus
Doubting or putting pressure on self
