Communication & Language Biases

Question 1

Define in-group favouritism.

Answer 1

Individual tend to favour their own group over the out-group. Motivated by the need of having a positive self-concept. In-group = positive + favoured.

Question 2

Explain the communication accommodation theory.

Answer 2

When interaction people adjust: speech, vocal patterns + gestures to accommodate to others.
Identity, language and context also affect communication.
Convergence, over-accommodation (3 subtypes), divergence.

Question 3

Define convergence.

Answer 3

Assimilation/adaptation to the interlocutor. Used to get approval and to be positively evaluated. Converge toward individuals of higher status.

Question 4

Define over-accommodation and the three subtypes of it.

Answer 4

Extreme form of convergence - negatively perceived.
Sensory - verbal + physical accommodation but behaviour is seen as patronising.
Dependency - one of the speakers is dependent on the other (power imbalance).
Intergroup - use of stereotypes to guide interaction.

Question 5

Define divergence.

Answer 5

Highlighting linguistic differences. Distinctiveness is the aim. Positive evaluation of in-group.

Question 6

Name some characteristics of hate speech.

Answer 6

• In-group = positive, out-group = negative. Dehumanising terms.
• Out-group as posing a threat to in-group.
• Target group seen as a minority/stigmatised group.
• Emphasises stereotypes.
• Negative attitudes + promotes violence.
• Facilitates relationships between group members.

Question 7

What are the three things prejudiced language includes?

Answer 7

Hate speech, metaphors + disparaging humour.

Question 8

Define linguistic bias.

Answer 8

A systematic asymmetry in word choice that reflects the social-category cognitions that are applied to the group/individual.

Question 9

Name some linguistic biases.

Answer 9

Labelling, stereotype consistency bias, stereotypic explanatory bias, linguistic category bias, linguistic inter-group bias, negation bias, irony bias, gender language bias.

Question 10

What is labelling?

Answer 10

Bias that affects social cognition. It is our perception of groups.

Question 11

What are stereotype consistency bias and stereotypic explanatory bias?

Answer 11

Type of information we communicate.

Question 12

What are linguistic category bias, linguistic inter-group bias, negation bias, irony bias and gender language bias?

Answer 12

How we formulate information.

Question 13

Give a study + results that shows the effects of labelling.

Answer 13

3 conditions - no labels, weak labels or strong labels (anorexic, obese).
Results: labelling increased similarities between targets of the same group, stronger the labelling = stronger the effect.

Question 14

Define derogatory labelling.

Answer 14

Emotionally charged terms. Convey a negative representation and attitude toward a group.

Question 15

What are the two things that define the cognitive representation of a target group (derogatory labelling)?

Answer 15

Valence and complexity.

Less complex + more valence for small and less familiar groups.

Question 16

Explain how there is stereotype consistency bias in communication.

Answer 16

Individuals more likely to communicate stereotype consistent info. Stereotypes represent shared knowledge. People connect + convos are more smooth.

Question 17

Pps were presented with male/female characters and two scenarios (stereotypical/non). How did the stereotypical scenario change as groups got larger?

Answer 17

It became more relevant.

Question 18

Explain how stereotypic explanatory bias works.

Answer 18

People produce more explanation for stereotype inconsistent behaviours. To make sense of unexpected behaviours + maintain shared knowledge.
E.g. X got a low score on the IT test… X got an A* because it was an easy exam!

Question 19

How do names + verbs and names + adjectives change the target perception?

Answer 19

Names + verbs - essential + stable OR habit that defines the person.
Name + adjectives - stereotypic and essential OR stereotypic and less essential.

Question 20

Describe the linguistic category model.

Answer 20

Interpersonal terms (verbs and adjectives) vary on a continuum from concrete to abstract forms.
Actions - psychological states - attributes.

Question 21

What is the difference between concrete and abstract language (linguistic intergroup bias section)?

Answer 21

Concrete = single episodes.
Abstract = permanent characteristics. 
In-group negative actions = concrete. 
Out-group positive actions = concrete. 
In-group positive trait = abstract.
Out-group negative trait = abstract.

Question 22

Explain a study + results that showed how abstract/concrete language depends on group type.

Answer 22

Mass (1995).
Northern paps - stereotypical Northern - higher in abstractness compared to stereotypical Southern.
Vice versa for Southern pps.

Question 23

What are two factors that affect linguistic intergroup bias and how do they?

Answer 23

Motivation - positive distinctiveness. In-group favouritism!

Expectations - predicted behaviours = abstract. Unexpected behaviours = concrete.

Question 24

What is negation bias?

Answer 24

Negations include ‘no’ or ‘not’. Deny value of a proposition.
Stereotype-consistent behaviour = no negation.
Stereotype-inconsistent behaviour = negation.
Mark solved the problem - not stupid vs smart.

Question 25

What are the consequences of negation bias?

Answer 25

Beukeboom (2010).

Higher positive impression when positive stereotypes are affirmed vs counter-stereotypes.

Question 26

What is irony bias?

Answer 26

Plays a role in stereotypes.

Used to communicate stereotype inconsistent than stereotype consistent information.

Question 27

What is gender language bias?

Answer 27

Different types of languages: Grammatical gender languages.
Natural gender languages (gender-neutral personal nouns). Sometimes biased towards a gender - male/female bias.
Genderless languages.

Question 28

What did Hodel discover about countries with the most gender fair languages?

Answer 28

More egalitarian.

Better social-economic equality.

Question 29

Name 3 ways of making languages more gender fair?

Answer 29

Neutralisation.
Feminisation.
Double form - students + studentesse.

Question 30

Explain the results of when jobs were advertised with gender-fair language/non-gender fair language.

Answer 30

Gender-fair language: m + f seen as equally suitable.

Women with feminine job titles seen as less favourable than when with a masculine job title.