Communication & Language Biases Flashcards
Define in-group favouritism.
Individual tend to favour their own group over the out-group. Motivated by the need of having a positive self-concept. In-group = positive + favoured.
Explain the communication accommodation theory.
When interaction people adjust: speech, vocal patterns + gestures to accommodate to others.
Identity, language and context also affect communication.
Convergence, over-accommodation (3 subtypes), divergence.
Define convergence.
Assimilation/adaptation to the interlocutor. Used to get approval and to be positively evaluated. Converge toward individuals of higher status.
Define over-accommodation and the three subtypes of it.
Extreme form of convergence - negatively perceived.
Sensory - verbal + physical accommodation but behaviour is seen as patronising.
Dependency - one of the speakers is dependent on the other (power imbalance).
Intergroup - use of stereotypes to guide interaction.
Define divergence.
Highlighting linguistic differences. Distinctiveness is the aim. Positive evaluation of in-group.
Name some characteristics of hate speech.
- In-group = positive, out-group = negative. Dehumanising terms.
- Out-group as posing a threat to in-group.
- Target group seen as a minority/stigmatised group.
- Emphasises stereotypes.
- Negative attitudes + promotes violence.
- Facilitates relationships between group members.
What are the three things prejudiced language includes?
Hate speech, metaphors + disparaging humour.
Define linguistic bias.
A systematic asymmetry in word choice that reflects the social-category cognitions that are applied to the group/individual.
Name some linguistic biases.
Labelling, stereotype consistency bias, stereotypic explanatory bias, linguistic category bias, linguistic inter-group bias, negation bias, irony bias, gender language bias.
What is labelling?
Bias that affects social cognition. It is our perception of groups.
What are stereotype consistency bias and stereotypic explanatory bias?
Type of information we communicate.
What are linguistic category bias, linguistic inter-group bias, negation bias, irony bias and gender language bias?
How we formulate information.
Give a study + results that shows the effects of labelling.
3 conditions - no labels, weak labels or strong labels (anorexic, obese).
Results: labelling increased similarities between targets of the same group, stronger the labelling = stronger the effect.
Define derogatory labelling.
Emotionally charged terms. Convey a negative representation and attitude toward a group.
What are the two things that define the cognitive representation of a target group (derogatory labelling)?
Valence and complexity.
Less complex + more valence for small and less familiar groups.
Explain how there is stereotype consistency bias in communication.
Individuals more likely to communicate stereotype consistent info. Stereotypes represent shared knowledge. People connect + convos are more smooth.
Pps were presented with male/female characters and two scenarios (stereotypical/non). How did the stereotypical scenario change as groups got larger?
It became more relevant.
Explain how stereotypic explanatory bias works.
People produce more explanation for stereotype inconsistent behaviours. To make sense of unexpected behaviours + maintain shared knowledge.
E.g. X got a low score on the IT test… X got an A* because it was an easy exam!
How do names + verbs and names + adjectives change the target perception?
Names + verbs - essential + stable OR habit that defines the person.
Name + adjectives - stereotypic and essential OR stereotypic and less essential.
Describe the linguistic category model.
Interpersonal terms (verbs and adjectives) vary on a continuum from concrete to abstract forms. Actions - psychological states - attributes.
What is the difference between concrete and abstract language (linguistic intergroup bias section)?
Concrete = single episodes. Abstract = permanent characteristics. In-group negative actions = concrete. Out-group positive actions = concrete. In-group positive trait = abstract. Out-group negative trait = abstract.
Explain a study + results that showed how abstract/concrete language depends on group type.
Mass (1995).
Northern paps - stereotypical Northern - higher in abstractness compared to stereotypical Southern.
Vice versa for Southern pps.
What are two factors that affect linguistic intergroup bias and how do they?
Motivation - positive distinctiveness. In-group favouritism!
Expectations - predicted behaviours = abstract. Unexpected behaviours = concrete.
What is negation bias?
Negations include ‘no’ or ‘not’. Deny value of a proposition.
Stereotype-consistent behaviour = no negation.
Stereotype-inconsistent behaviour = negation.
Mark solved the problem - not stupid vs smart.
What are the consequences of negation bias?
Beukeboom (2010).
Higher positive impression when positive stereotypes are affirmed vs counter-stereotypes.
What is irony bias?
Plays a role in stereotypes.
Used to communicate stereotype inconsistent than stereotype consistent information.
What is gender language bias?
Different types of languages: Grammatical gender languages.
Natural gender languages (gender-neutral personal nouns). Sometimes biased towards a gender - male/female bias.
Genderless languages.
What did Hodel discover about countries with the most gender fair languages?
More egalitarian.
Better social-economic equality.
Name 3 ways of making languages more gender fair?
Neutralisation.
Feminisation.
Double form - students + studentesse.
Explain the results of when jobs were advertised with gender-fair language/non-gender fair language.
Gender-fair language: m + f seen as equally suitable.
Women with feminine job titles seen as less favourable than when with a masculine job title.
